How to grow grapes

• Select a site with full sun and good drainage.
• Build and install a sturdy trellis to support the vines and ensure good sun exposure.
• Start with one-year old bare root grape vines or healthy cuttings.
• Trim off any broken or damaged roots.
• Soak the vines in a bucket of water for 1-6 hours, depending on how dried out they feel.
• Dig planting holes that are 2-3 times the diameter of the plant.
• Place the vines 6-10 feet apart with two bud spurs at soil level.
• Water well at planting time to help the soil settle around the roots.
• During the first two years, allow vertical and horizontal shoots to grow so the leaves can produce energy for a strong root system. You may need to  provide a vertical stake to help the shoots reach the trellis.
• Once the vine is established, select the strongest vertical shoot to become the trunk and remove all the others.
• Start training vines during the winter, when they are dormant. The main trunk should be ‘headed’ (trimmed) when it reaches the top trellis wire. Canes should not be not be cut during the growing season.

Pruning grape vines 

The variety of grapes being grown determines which of two pruning methods to use. Grapes are either spur-pruned or cane-pruned. This is because different grape varieties produce fruit on different bud spurs.

Cane pruning leaves only the trunk and two to four shoots from the previous year’s growth to be trained along support wires. New buds will emerge from these canes to produce leaves and fruit. ‘Thompson Seedless’ and ‘Concord’ are cane-pruned grapes. One cane-pruning method is called the Four Arm Kniffen method and the University of Maine offers an excellent how-to video here.

Spur pruning leaves the bilateral cordons, or horizontal branches, permanently in place. In spring, new growth will emerge from this old wood. ‘Flame Seedless’, ‘Tokay’, and ‘Ribier’ are spur-pruned grapes. In either case, you will want to trim each cane to have no more than 14 spurs. Otherwise, all the plant’s energy will go into vegetative growth, rather than producing grapes.

Irrigating grapes

While most of a grapevine’s roots are in the top 3’ of soil, some of those roots can go down as much as 15’ deep! Grapes perform best when they are watered deeply and allowed to dry out between waterings. The amount of water needed depends on the type of soil, the depth of the roots, and the weather. On average, a deep watering every 2-3 weeks during summer is adequate. During cooler or wet weather, little or no water is needed. Once your vines have bloomed, it is important to water regularly. As fruit develops, erratic watering can lead to water-stress and cracked fruit.

Feeding grape vines

If grapes are being grown in rich soil, nothing needs to be added. Too many nutrients can reduce or eliminate fruit production. Remember, in the plant world, it’s all about reproduction. Grapes are the reproductive part of the vine. If the plant doesn’t feel the need to reproduce, it won’t.

Assuming your soil isn’t perfectly rich, nitrogen and potassium can be added before berry set. (‘Berry set’ is when the grapes are 1/4” in diameter.) Zinc should only be added before the vines bloom. The only way to know if these additives are needed is to have your soil tested by a reputable lab.

Harvesting grapes

To reduce the chance of pest problems, harvest grapes as soon as they taste ripe. Unripe grapes will not ripen off the vine. Grape clusters should be cut, not pulled, from the vine, and then cooled after being harvested. Do not rinse grapes off before storing them. Do that just before eating.

Pests & diseases of grapes

Spider mites, aphids, mealybugs, cutworms, thrips, click beetles, leafhoppers, branch and twig borers, and ants can infest grape vines. Diseases such as Eutypa Dieback and Pierce’s Disease can infect grape vines, and powdery mildew is a common problem. Birds and rodents can also wreck havoc on your harvest. Monitor grape vines regularly for these pests and diseases to ensure timely control. Contact your local County Extension office for information specific to your region.

While grape vines take some time to become productive, an established grape vine can produce fruit for 50-100 years! Only one or two vines are needed to provide a family with an abundance of grapes.

Get yours started today!

How to grow butternut squash

Butternut squash grows best in full sun, though I have grown abundant crops under well-pruned fruit trees. This is a deep-rooted plant, making it well suited to areas experiencing drought. Butternut squash does not need particularly fertile soil and it can go weeks without watering. If larger leaves start to wilt, water deeply. There is no need to fertilize butternut squash.

Pests & diseases of butternut squash

Butternut squash is prone to root rot, so avoid over-watering. Seedlings are susceptible to damping off disease when the soil is too cold or too wet. Slugs and snails, caterpillars, and cucumber beetles will attack young plants. Later in the season, aphids, spider mites, and whiteflies can cause problems. Powdery mildew and other fungal diseases are common, but they rarely kill the plant or harm the fruit.

Cucurbit cross-pollination

This is one of those ‘partly true, partly myth’ situations in the garden. Traditional folklore warns gardeners against growing squash, cucumbers, and melons near each other. The claim suggests that cross-pollination will occur, affecting the taste of the produce. Since pollination can only happen with pollen of the same species, this cannot really happen. What can happen is cross-pollination between varieties of the same species. Cucumbers and melons are a different species, so they will not cross-pollinate with each other or other members of the cucurbit family.

Summer squash, pumpkins, gourds, and some winter squash, all being members of the same family, can cross-pollinate. This pollination will create viable fruit identical to the mother plant. The genetic changes can only be seen in the seeds that are produced. If you save seeds, as I do, this may result in something really unique growing next year. Sometimes it will be edible and sometimes it won’t. Butternut squash will cross-pollinate with pumpkins, so you’ll want to keep them as far apart as possible. Oddly shaped fruit and poor taste are usually the result of over-fertilized soil, too much irrigation, or damp weather, and not weird cross-pollinations.

​Harvesting & storing butternut squash

The more often you harvest the fruit, the more fruit the plant will produce. In the plant world, reproduction is the name of the game. Fruits can be eaten right away or allowed to dry out, or cure, for later use. Fruits can be allowed to cure on the vine or removed and stored in a cool, dry location.

Basil is one of the most rewarding culinary herbs to grow, indoors or out.

This member of the mint family may not be as rugged as many of its cousins, but you’ll be glad you planted basil when it’s dinnertime! 

Basil seeds are used in Thai cooking and the leaves are used to make many amazing dishes. Aromatic basil leaves, julienned with mozzarella and fresh tomatoes, make a delightful summer Caprese salad, and what would pesto be without basil?!!?

Basil varieties

There are many varieties of basil. Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) is the most common, but you can also find these varieties:

• Purple or opal basils (Ocimum basilicum purpurea) are big favorites of bees and it looks and tastes lovely in salads.
• Lemon or lime basil (Ocimum basilicum citriodorum) pairs nicely with fish.
• Licorice-flavored Thai basil (Ocimum basilicum ‘Siam Queen’) has serrated leaf edges.
• Cinnamon basil (Ocimum basilicum ‘Cinnamon’) has a distinctly cinnamon flavor.
• Greek or globe basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Spicy Globe’) has very tiny leaves and makes a lovely little topiary tree.

How to grow basil

As a tender annual, temperatures must be at least 70ºF for basil to grow. Start too soon and you’ll just waste seeds. Basil loves hot weather, but may benefit from a little afternoon shade if your summers are really scorching. I have planted basil slightly east of a small apricot tree, in patio containers, and in a partially shaded tower. Our summers get very hot and basil performs well in each of these locations. If you are growing basil in a container, be sure to use one that is large enough to hang onto some moisture.

Start seeds indoors, 6-8 weeks before warmer temperatures are expected, to get a big head start on the growing season. You can also use succession planting to increase yield. Basil can be started from cuttings. Simply pinch off a stem and place it in a glass of water. This is an excellent way to make many plants out of a single plant!

Basil seeds should be planted 1/4” deep. The soil should be kept moist, but not soggy. In 5-7 days, seeds should germinate. It is easy to recognize basil seed leaves because they look like two capital D’s, facing away from each other. Seedlings need 12-18” between plants to reach full size and for good airflow. A 2-3” layer of mulch placed around young plants will help retain moisture and reduce weeds. ​

Basil needs 6-8 hours of sunlight a day and it prefers well-drained soil with a pH of 6.0-7.5. Depending on rainfall and temperatures, basil will need to be watered deeply every 7-10 days. Since basil is food, think twice about using any chemical pesticides. 

BTW, ignore basil plants for sale in the grocery store. They look lush and full, but what they really are is overcrowded and root bound. If you try to separate the plants, it will damage the roots too much. Leave them the way they are and they will simply choke themselves to death. Even if they survive, air flow problems can lead to fungal disease. Buy a pack of seeds and share with friends.

Basil pests & diseases

Aphids, spider mites, nematodes, cutworms, slugs and snails, mealybugs, and fungal diseases can all cause problems on basil. Adding a ring of wood ashes around each plant may protect them against cutworms, and dusting plants with diatomaceous earth can reduce mealybug damage. Planting nasturtiums nearby is said to entice aphids away from basil. Apparently, aphids prefer nasturtiums, so you get more basil. Whether it works or not, the nasturtiums are lovely and tasty, all on their own. Row covers can be used to protect basil from many of these pests.

Ensuring good air flow between plants and proper watering make a big difference in basil health. Too much water can cause root rot diseases. Allow plants to dry out between waterings. Stem rot, Fusarium wilt, bacterial leafspot, gray mold, and damping-off disease can also infect basil. A relatively new disease, basil downy mildew, has made its way to California. Be on the lookout for purple or gray spore growth on the underside of leaves. Infected plants must be destroyed.

Basil makes an excellent companion plant to asparagus, carrots, sweet peppers, and tomatoes. Apparently, asparagus beetles, carrot flies and tomato hornworms don’t share our love of basil. While there is no scientific proof, many gardeners believe flies, mosquitoes and whiteflies are also repelled by basil. Whether it works or not, I can’t plant enough of this delicious herb!

Harvesting basil

Snip fresh leaves any time they are needed in the kitchen. If more than a few leaves are needed, or if the plant is getting leggy, cut just above a pair of leaves to stimulate new branching. Regular trimming will keep the plant productive. The basic rule of thumb is to pinch a stem just above a pair of leaves as soon as a stem has 5 or 6 leaves on it. If basil is allowed to go to flower and seed, the leaves may begin to taste slightly bitter. (The bees will love it, though!) Basil flowers are edible and they look lovely in a salad or candied and used to decorate baked goods.

Storing basil

Basil leaves can be dried or frozen. To dry basil, cut the stems and rinse off any dust, insects or microorganisms. Then pat dry and hang the basil stems upside down until the leaves have dried out completely, just as you would with lavender and other herbs. Once the leaves have dried out completely, they can be removed from the stems by rolling them between your hands over a sheet of wax paper. Store in a dark, dry location. (I repurpose spice jars that used to hold something else and that have been thoroughly washed and dried.) To freeze fresh basil leaves, rinse them off, pat dry and remove from the stem. Leaves can be frozen whole (not recommended) or pureed and then frozen in ice cube trays for easy portion control. My very favorite use for basil is pesto, which can transform everyday pasta, chicken, or pork into something truly delicious!

If you have a large container, you can create a lovely miniature herb garden by planting parsley, chives, oregano and basil together. The spiky chives, trailing oregano and bushy parsley and basil make a lovely arrangement that tastes even better than it looks!

Many people wish they could garden, but think they can’t because of where they live. Nothing could be further from the truth.

Container plants can grow on window sills and in sunny rooms without the addition of artificial light, assuming the area receives 6 to 8 hours of sunlight each day. Grow lights can also be used for even better growth. Growing edible plants serves many purposes: cleaner air, tastier food, less fossil fuels being burned, and, hey, container gardening is fun!

Window sill garden resources

Start your window sill garden by figuring out what resources are available with these questions:

• How many windows are available?
• How many hours of sun does each window get?
• How wide/deep are the sills?
• Can hanging plants be installed near windows?
• What seeds and plants are available?

Choosing plants for your window sill gardens

The next step is deciding what to plant. Being grown indoors, many of these plants will need to be hand-pollinated, but it's not difficult.

• What will you actually eat or use?
• Herbs are excellent choices for window sill gardens. They don’t need much care and most of them are damn near indestructible, once established (except basil). Oregano makes a lovely hanging plant, chives will continue to produce for years, and thyme and rosemary are very fragrant. 
• Fresh tomatoes, melons, squash, and cucumbers taste divine and are surprisingly easy to grow, and they can be trained up a trellis, net, or a lovely dried branch. Hand-pollination* will be needed if grown indoors. 
• Climbing nasturtiums are edible and lovely!
• Potatoes and strawberries grow for many years in a tower, bucket or trash can. Strawberries can also be grown in hanging baskets.
• Citrus and other fruit trees can be grown from seeds in fruit already in the house. Just don’t try this with apples - their seeds will not produce trees identical to the parent tree.
• Blueberry, raspberry and blackberry bushes can grow in containers.
• Climbing (pole) beans can grow up a discarded net hung over a window.
• Radishes need very little space and they grow really fast. If radishes are grown in a bigger container and allowed to go to seed, hundreds of radish seed pods can be enjoyed raw or in salads and stir-fry.
• Ornamental plants, such as succulents and bulbs, are attractive choices and they require very little care.

Window sill garden containers

The next step is selecting container(s). This is an excellent time to go outside and start walking around the neighborhood. It is astounding what people will throw away these days. Very often, the perfect container can be found just by walking around with an open mind and mindful eyes. 

Just be sure to provide drainage for container plants. Over-watering and poor drainage kill more indoor plants than everything else put together. Contrary to popular belief, it is not a good idea to add rocks at the bottom of planting containers. Rocks take up valuable soil space and provide fungal spores with a great place to reproduce. Just be sure there are a couple of holes at the base of plant containers to allow water a way to escape. Place tuna cans, coffee canister lids or plastic packaging under plant containers to catch excess water. A few container possibilities include:

• Small ceramic pots, jumbo coffee mugs from local thrift stores or yard sales.
• Rain gutter scraps can be sealed and mounted on many window sills. Be sure to seal them with something non-toxic. The standard coating probably isn’t good to eat.
• Plastic bags, even old leather boots work as planting containers! Use your imagination!
• Pallets can be reconstructed into countless forms to suit different window sill garden needs. Check out these Instructables!

Causes of seedling loss

There are many causes of seed and seedling loss. To prevent losses, you need to identify the culprit:

• Cutworms emerge from the soil at night and sever seedling stems. They often hide near missing seedlings in the top inch or two of soil.
• Earwigs also come out at night and may chew leaves and stems or take the entire plant.
• Slugs and snails chew irregular holes in leaves or remove them entirely. Look for the tell-tale trail of slime.
• Flea beetles are small, shiny jumping bugs that chew dozens of holes in leaves or eat the whole thing.
• Root maggots leave tunnels in older plants and can destroy seedlings. Look for brown pupal cases.

If none of these pests are killing the seedlings, it may be damping off disease. Damping off is a disease of fungi and fungi-like organisms that clog the arteries of seedlings. Damping off disease can also attack seeds and roots.

Seeds and seedlings are very susceptible to damping off. The fungal spores can survive in the soil for a very long time. As the spores enter, they migrate to the water-carrying xylem and spread, reproducing at a mind-boggling rate, clogging the xylem and killing the plant. If the stems of fallen seedlings are discolored and pinched, it is damping off disease.

How to prevent damping off disease
 
Since infected plants and seeds are doomed, prevention is your only option. Fungi and their cousins love the wet ground. Plants need water, too, so there will be times when the ground is wet. You can reduce the likelihood of damping off and other fungal diseases with these garden tips:

• Improve drainage and soil porosity with compost.
• Be sure to use aged, rather than green, compost.
• Plant seeds at the proper depth - read the packet.
• Plant seeds at the correct temperature.
• Do not overwater and allow the soil to dry out between waterings.

Protect seedlings from damping off disease for a richer harvest.

Companion planting is touted as an easy way to make plants help each other to grow faster and better. The problem is, most of the claims made about companion planting are bogus.

Companion planting fallacies
​
Companion planting enthusiasts claim that different plants “like” and “help” each other when grown together. While it feels nice to believe there is a magic relationship that occurs between these ‘companions’, nearly all of the lists you will find on the Internet are not based on scientific research. Most of this useless information is based on a 1930’s study by Dr. Ehrenfried Pfeiffer. He used chromatography* in something he called the “sensitive crystallization method” to determine which plants worked well together. Unfortunately, Dr. Pfeiffer’s results don’t have anything to do with how plants actually grow.  

History of companion planting

Over 5,000 years ago, the Iroquois and other native Americans sowed corn, pole beans and squash together using the Three Sisters Method. Corn grows tall, providing the nitrogen-fixing pole beans with a trellis. The squash shades the ground, reducing competitive weeds and retaining moisture. As an added benefit to gardeners, eating corn (a seed) with beans (a legume) provides a complete dietary protein! This is an example of science-based companion planting. More accurate terms for the concept are polyculture or intercropping.

Benefits of intercropping

Folklore and mysticism aside, intercropping improves pest control, maximizes production, increases pollination, and provides better habitat for more biodiversity. Here are the real benefits of putting the right specimens together:

1. Spatial interaction
2. Trap crops
3. Chemical warfare
4. Nitrogen fixation
5. Biodiversity
6. Nurse cropping
7. Security

Getting started with intercropping

As seed catalogs begin to arrive each spring, many gardeners are thinking about garden design and the placement of the next season’s crops. Rather than following corporate agriculture’s lead, with its heavy focus on monoculture and the resulting susceptibility to pests and diseases, knowledgable gardeners recognize the value of polyculture. Polyculture more closely follows nature’s tendency to combine many different species in a single space. Let’s take a look at the various factors that meet the scientific criteria to actually make a positive difference in the garden.

Spatial interaction

Some plants need shade, while others grow straight and tall. Combining shade-loving plants, or climbing varieties, with taller specimens can help you make the most of a growing area. As in the Three Sisters Method, corn and sunflowers not only provide fresh food, but their sturdy stalks make excellent supports for climbing plants, such as pole beans and cucumbers. You can further support those plants with ground-shading squash or fast-growing lettuces. It may help to think of an area in terms of layers: the uppermost canopy, climbers, low growers, and even root crops can often be grown in the same place, at the same time, increasing the output of your soil. 

Trap crops

I have an ornamental apricot tree that grows in my backyard. Since it does not produce fruit, it’s not my favorite. In fact, I nearly took it out. Then, I saw that it was covered with aphids. At first, that seemed like yet another reason for taking the tree out, but then I learned about trap crops. Trap crops distract pests away from food crops. By providing a rich food source for these pests, my other plants were more likely to be ignored. Also, this heavy infestation acted like a restaurant road sign for beneficial insects, such as lady beetles and lacewings, inviting them to come and stay a while, which they do. Commercial growers have learned to take advantage of trap crops to lure pests away from crops. These heavy concentrations of pests are then killed off with insecticides or even vacuumed off of plants!

Chemical warfare

Biochemicals are produced by some plants that either benefit or harm neighboring plants. This is called allelopathy. In some cases, such as many aromatic herbs, these secondary chemicals are offensive to insects pests or herbivores. This chemical warfare is also used by sorghum to reduce nearby weed populations. Common pea plants also use chemicals to inhibit the growth of nearby lettuce, wheat, cress, or sorghum, along with weeds. On the flip side of the same equation, allelopathy research has shown that growing garlic and eggplant together benefits both plants. 

Nitrogen fixation
​
Legumes have evolved a unique relationship with certain bacteria that allows them to fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants. Neighboring plants benefit from this relationship by gaining access to more nitrogen. This benefits remains in effect until the legumes begin going to seed. At that point, there is no excess nitrogen to be shared. You can improve seedling growth of many other crops by adding an occasional lima bean, fava bean, alfalfa, or other legume plant in the mix, or using these beneficial plants as a cover crop or green manure.

Biodiversity

Diverse habitats attracts beneficial insects, such as predators and pollinators. Monoculture, growing the same crop over an area, is prone to serious pest and disease problems (which is why chemicals are used so frequently in modern agriculture). The diversity created by growing many different plants in the same space can confuse pests into looking elsewhere for a host. Also, one plant may attract a pollinator, which is then given easy access to the plants in need of pollination.

 Too much of a good thing can be a bad thing.

And this is especially true when it comes to water in the soil. Over-watering and poor drainage often result in root rot, especially in houseplants. Once root rot occurs, the plant is doomed. ​

Lavender has been used to sooth upset stomach, irritated skin, and bad hair days for over 2,500 years. ​

Harvesting lavender

Lavender should be harvested when the florets first open. Snip off flowers just above a leaf pair to encourage new growth. Long-stemmed hardy varieties can be bundled and hung upside-down in a dark place to dry. Shorter-stemmed tender varieties, which tend to lose their flowers as they dry, can be threaded and hung in a pillowcase, so none of the flowers are lost.

I use my guest room closet for drying lavender. It stays dark and I like to think the aroma is soothing to overnight guests.

Lavender is a lovely addition to stumperies, rock gardens, and sensory gardens.

Endosperm is the starchy material found within a seed that feeds a baby plant (and us). This is where all those carbs are stored! The wheat used to make bread and the barley used to make beer are both endosperm. The popcorn and coconut we eat are also endosperm. ​

When double-fertilization occurs, one male gamete becomes the baby plant and the other is used to create endosperm. This behavior is exclusive to flowering plants (angiosperm). Some plants, such as orchids, lack endosperm. (Maybe that’s why they’re so tricky to grow…)

Endosperm is mostly starch, but it also contains small amounts of oil and protein. Some seeds, such as sunflowers, contain a lot more oil than others. In some plants, like beans, the endosperm is completely absorbed as the new plant grows. In others, mostly grains and corn, the endosperm is stored. This storage occurs in the cotyledon. 

As you begin planting seeds in spring, you can improve germination rates by using seeds that look full and undamaged, providing plenty of moisture, and waiting until temperatures are consistently warm enough. (I know, it’s hard to wait, but it’s worth it.)

In some cases, scarification is needed to initiate germination and the absorption of endosperm. Scarification occurs naturally when freezing temperatures or fire occur. These conditions damage the seed coat, allowing moisture a way to enter. Many wild plants require scarification, including indigo, wild roses and licorice. You can scarify a seed by nicking it with a sharp blade.

Does pollen make you sneeze?

Bees, beetles, and butterflies may love to eat pollen, but people can suffer mightily as flowering plants begin their rites of spring.

Pollen is the plant equivalent of sperm. These tiny, often yellow, particles fertilize the ovule to create seeds and fruit.

A flower can be male or female or both. The male stamen consists of a filament that holds up the anther, which contains pollen. The female pistil is made up of the receptive stigma, a tube-like style, and the ovary, at the base, which contains the ovule, or embryo sac. When all these things work together properly, pollination occurs.

But what makes pollen so problematic?

Many people mistakenly blame goldenrod for their allergies. I say mistakenly because goldenrod pollen is spread by animals. Most allergies are caused by airborne pollen, such as ragweed and grass. Many trees, such as oak, hickory and birch also cause allergic reactions. 

The real problem with pollen is that it is incredibly sticky, and many varieties are spiky, too. That’s great if you’re a receptive female flower, but it stinks if you’re allergic. You can’t just wipe it off. At the height of spring, when airborne pollen is being flung to every breeze, it gets on everything: your clothes, your face, even your eyelashes! The only way to get rid of it is to wash with soap and water.

If you grow nothing else, grow herbs. 

Herbs require minimal care and they repay your efforts in spades. Not only do they add flavor to food, but many herbs can be used to make excellent teas, fragrant sachets, insect repellants, and home decor.

Like other plants, herbs can be annual or perennial. Perennial plants keep coming back. while annuals tend to die off each year and must be replaced. Most herbs require a lot of sunlight. If you are growing indoors in containers, you may need to supplement light. Herbs are well-suited to container gardening, or they can be put in the ground. Below, you will find basic information for several popular herbs.

Sage

Turkey dressing, sausage, and some cheeses just wouldn’t be the same without sage. If taste weren’t reason enough, research has shown that consuming sage can lower blood glucose and cholesterol levels and improve your thinking process! Sage plants prefer rich clay loam and they can get pretty big. A healthy, mature sage plant can reach 3’ in diameter and in height, so plan accordingly! Sage needs plenty of nitrogen, so regular feeding with blood meal is a good idea. Be sure to harvest leaves before the plant flowers for the best flavor.

Tarragon

Tarragon has a shallow root system, so it makes a lovely container plant. It is a good source of potassium and it is said to be able to treat digestive problems and to fight certain bacteria. Tarragon is excellent on fish, vegetable dishes, egg dishes, in soup and white sauce. Once you get a tarragon plant established, you will have more of this herb than you will know what to do with. While it is growing, you won’t smell the distinctive aroma. It’s not until the leaves are harvested and oils become concentrated that the scent will become obvious. Tarragon can reach 2-3’ in height and it prefers moderate sun or a little shade during the hottest part of the day. Propagation is easiest through root division.

Thyme

There are several types of thyme and they all smell delicious! There are upright and trailing varieties. This woody plant adds flavor to Italian dishes, marinades, eggs, and stews. Thyme oil is used to relieve stomach upset, sore throat, and as a germ killer in mouthwash. Thyme does not grow well from seed. You are better off starting with a young plant. Thyme prefers slightly alkaline soil, so it does well in the Bay area. Thyme is one of those plants that really does best if you leave it alone. It’s oily, woody stem, like rosemary, has evolved to hold moisture in and to repel pests. Interfering with its natural processes isn’t necessary. Thyme makes a lovely container plant. Mature plants can reach 12-18” in height and should be placed 18-24” away from other plants, to give it the room it needs to grow. Once a thyme plant is established, you can snip or break off branches as you need them, without harming the plant (within reason, of course). Since thyme grows slowly, weed control is important early in its life. You can mulch with straw to slow its competitors.

If there are any other herbs that you would like to grow, let me know in the comments section.

Many people assume they can’t garden because they live in an apartment, rent a room, or have a tiny yard. Nothing could be further from the truth. Nature finds a way to put plants everywhere except Antarctica and you can, too. Container gardening is an excellent way to work around space limitations (or grumpy landlords). ​

Soil, nutrients, and water

Generally, there are two types of soil you can buy: planting soil and potting soil. You want potting soil in your containers because it is formulated to retain water and nutrients better than planting soil (which is for use in the ground). Avoid using soil that contains sedge peat - it interferes with drainage. 

Over time, your container plants will use up nutrients in the soil. You can supplement with aged compost (my favorite), fertilizer, or by changing out the potting soil every few years. That last one is pretty traumatic to root systems, so I don’t recommend it, unless necessary. Also, some plants will become root bound in containers. You can either repot these plants into a larger container, or trim the roots.

Container plants need to be monitored closely for water stress. Over-watering and under-watering are the biggest sources of problems for container plants. It is important to let the soil dry out between waterings. At the same time, hanging plants and unglazed ceramic pots need to be watered more often in hot weather.

Lighting

Most container plants need 6 or more hours of daylight each day. You may need to supplement with grow lights if your home, patio or balcony do not receive enough sunlight. I have heard good things about LED grow lights, but haven’t tried them yet. (If you have, please let us know your thoughts in the Comments section.)

Foodscaping, or edible landscaping, is a great way to make your yard more productive, while still being pretty. Rather than simply installing raised beds, container plants, and traditional rows to hoe, foodscaping uses food plants in place of more traditional (non-edible) landscape plants.

In practically every location, indoors and out, food plants can be grown in place of ornamentals. Before you transform your garden design, however, it is important to find out what you are working with, identify your microclimate, and decide what you will eat, using these tips:

1. Determine your USDA Hardiness Zone (there have been recent changes, so double-check)
2. Contact the Cooperative Extension Office to learn your local frost dates (keep in mind, these are statistical averages - your yard may be somewhat different)
3. Observe and note sun exposure and wind patterns across your landscape (full sun, partial shade, protected, exposed, etc)
4. Get your soil tested at a reputable local lab 
5. Before opening any seed catalogs, make a list of food plants that your family will actually eat and that grow in your microclimate
6. To help with site selection, research desirable food plants and note their mature size, sun and water requirements, and temperature preferences (the southern side of your home will probably be the warmest)

Hedges

Many landscapes feature boxwood hedges. Hedges add structure and privacy (once they become tall enough). Instead of boxwood, you can get the same effect while cutting your grocery bill with rosemary, American cranberry, natal plum, bush plum, blueberries, hazelnut, or pineapple guava.

Shrubs
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Most landscapes feature ornamental shrubs that require regular pruning, feeding and watering. While they may look nice, they don’t produce food for your table. Instead of yet another arborvitae, barberry, or abelia, you can grow lavender, blueberry, raspberry, currants, gooseberry, or bush plums.

Trees and vines

Fruit and nut trees are excellent investments in a foodscape. In addition to the shade, a single orange tree can produce 130 pounds of oranges each year, for 50-100 years. That’s a lot of citrus! Almond, peach, pear, nectarine, avocado, plum, cherry, fig, pecan, hazelnut, walnut, hickory, and apple trees can often produce more food than a single family can eat in a season! Luckily, there are plenty of ways to put food by, and friends and neighbors are usually very happy with gifts from your foodscape! If you have a pergola or apartment balcony, you can also grow grapes or kiwifruit. [Check out this article in TreeVitalize, The Best trees For Small Gardens, where yours truly was counted as one of the experts!]
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Herbs

Herbs are some of the easiest plants to grow. Once established, they generally prefer to be left alone. The oils that make them so delicious to us tend to make them less desirable to many garden pests. Rosemary, basil, thyme, parsley, cilantro, oregano, lavender, bay laurel, sage, chives, marjoram, and dill can all be grown indoors or out and they make great additions to your culinary efforts, without costing a dime at the grocery store.

Perennials

Depending on your local climate, there are many perennial food plants that can add shape and structure to the garden and put food in the pantry. Rhubarb, asparagus, lovage, ginger, artichokes, horseradish, mint, Saffron crocus, and strawberries are just a few edible plants that will come back each year, providing your family with fresh food.

On-going annuals

Many edible plants are not technically perennial, but can be regrown from uneaten parts. These plants include garlic, onions, leeks, potatoes, dill, fennel, peas, and sweet potatoes. When harvesting fennel, simply cut off the portion to be eaten at ground level, leaving the roots intact. New plants will continue to emerge from the same root system.

Annuals

Annuals are the mainstay of most gardens, but they don’t have to be limited to traditional garden beds. Lettuces and spinach can be used as colorful accent plants around trees, among roses (pictured), or in containers. Sweet and hot peppers, tomatoes, celery, and radishes make lovely additions to the landscape, transforming what was simply visual into something delicious and useful. A note on radishes and Napa cabbage: If allowed to go to seed, these plants can provide hundreds of delicious seed pods that work well in salads and stir-fry. The seed pods that fall to the ground can be allowed to grow, giving you an even bigger harvest next year.

Seeds and starts

Most seed packets contain far more seeds than you will ever need. Rather than allowing these potential food plants to go to waste, you can host a seed party, where guests are invited to bring a particular seed packet. Guests then swap seeds, so everyone ends up with the quantity and variety they need to get started. Many public libraries are now offering seed libraries, as well. Seed libraries allow people to take just a few of the seeds they desire, making the rest of the seeds available to other visitors.

While it isn’t recommended, due to the risk of disease spread, I have personally used the seeds from store-bought tomatoes, sweet peppers, hot peppers, pumpkins, squash, and avocados, without any problems. I also use potato eyes, scallion, onion and leek ends, and celery bases. Many commercially grown food plants are sprayed with growth inhibitors, to prevent sprouting in transit, but you can rinse these chemicals off in most cases. Some seeds, however, should not be used. Trees, such as apples, are grown on grafted rootstock. The seeds from your grocery store apple will not produce what you want to eat.

You can transform your entire landscape into a foodscape, or you can slowly phase out ornamentals and replace them with food-producing plants. Whichever way appeals to you, I urge you to begin the process of providing your family with food grown by your own hands.

Bulbs

Many commercial growers use artificially generated vernalization to boost crop production. Most flowering bulbs require vernalization, to one degree or another, to reach their full potential. In the case of onions, the sets to be planted are stored at low temperatures to induce vernalization. Before planting the sets, they are devernalized at high temperatures to cause the plant’s energy to go into bulb development, rather than flowering.

Biennial plants

Biennial plants are those that take two years to grow from seed to fruition, and then die. Many varieties of carrots, cabbage, turnips, beets and kale only grow foliage during the first year. These plants are normally harvested during their first year, so they never have a chance to go to seed. If left in the ground and exposed to enough cold during the following winter, these plants are stimulated to produce flowers and seeds. By harvesting only part of these crops, gardeners can create perennial foodscapes!

Herbaceous perennials

Not all herbaceous (non-woody) perennials require vernalization, but several varieties will not flower without adequate chilling hours. The need for vernalization is only loosely associated with hardiness zones, but the amount of light a plant receives each day plays a major role in stimulating flower production. This is similar to my chickens, when egg production drops off drastically in winter and kicks back in as daylight hours start getting longer in spring. Here are just a few plants that require vernalization to flower optimally:

• Creeping phlox
• Cushion spurge
• Candytuft
• Pasqueflower
• Coreopsis
• Campanula/Bell Flowers
• Columbine
• Evening Primrose
• Lavender (pictured)

Gardeners can get more and better flower and produce by selecting plant varieties suited to their microclimate. Rather than cooling plants in the greenhouse, let nature do the work for you!

If we say something is sustainable, we mean that it can keep going. Since agriculture and gardening are critical to our food supply, being sustainable is pretty darned important.

Until the 1980’s, food production was focused on the industrial production of single species (mono crops), using chemical fertilizers and pesticides, until the soil was exhausted. You can only do that for so long, before you run out of places to grow food. 

​In 2002, at the International Society of Horticultural Science’s First International Symposium on Sustainability, it was agreed that sustainable agriculture and gardening were critical for the “well being of human societies”. ​

​Sustainable gardening incorporates practices that reduce water, energy, time and chemical consumption, while producing food year-round and protecting the environment. These practices take the following issues into account:

• water availability and quality
• soil degradation
• energy consumption
• landfills and garbage disposal
• fire prevention
• wildlife habitat protection
• invasive plant and animal species

Design for sustainability

Whether you already have a garden or are just starting out, you can design a garden or landscape for sustainability. Native plants are always your best bet because they put millions of years of evolution to work for you, conserving water, reducing the need for chemicals, and freeing up your time. Lawns are notorious water wasters and, quite honestly, most of us are not British aristocracy. Other plants, such as oregano, yarrow, or clover, make excellent, low-growing ground covers that use less water and rarely, if ever, need mowing. 

These tips can help you create your own sustainable garden:

• Use plants that are suitable to your microclimate
• Get your soil tested before applying fertilizers
• Place plants with their mature size in mind, to reduce the need for pruning (and remember that mature trees can significantly cool your house in summer!)
• Use low-volume irrigation (drip systems, rain barrels, micro sprinklers)
• Ask your local water district for a free efficiency inspection
• Transform kitchen and yard waste into compost
• Install free mulch from local tree trimming companies
• Plant species, such as California buckwheat or common yarrow, to attract and provide for beneficial insects
• Install porous hardscapes that allow water and gases to maintain soil health
• Pull weeds before they go to seed
• Identify pests before applying treatments and find out if there are more environmentally friendly methods

Recent heavy rains have brought much needed water to the drought stricken San Jose, California, but one of my fruit trees was not happy about it. Take a look at the photo below to see how water pooled around the tree.

The drainage around trees with irrigation rings was fine. I can only assume that it was the cement curb around the tree that was at least partially to blame for flooding my poor little nectarine tree. At the same time, the drainage pattern was so significantly different, that I will have to explore other possible causes and remedy them. Rainwater generally moves down, due to gravity, and sideways, toward drier areas. The curb prevents that sideways movement. All that standing water can lead to crown rot, root rot, and many other fungal diseases.

What is porosity?

Porosity, or permeability, in the garden refers to the ability of air and water to move through tiny pockets in the soil. These tiny spaces are called macropores and micropores, depending on their size. Soil that is rich in organic material tends to have a variety of macropores and micropores that improve its porosity. Porous soil allows roots to reach out freely to find water and nutrients. In my yard, we tend to have heavy clay soil that is made up of very tiny particles that leave few spaces in between. Porosity is measured as a percentage of spaces compared to the soil around them.
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What happens when it rains?

When rain starts to fall, or the sprinklers kick in, the soil is initially hydrophobic, causing runoff and urban drool. This is because the water is repelled, the same way a dry sponge allows water to run off the top, rather than being absorbed. Now, we all know that sponges are very porous. They have lots of holes that can hold water. That’s why we use them! 

Once the soil becomes damp, like a sponge, it can then hold a surprising amount of water. When all the pores are full, gravity then pulls the water downward into groundwater, where it is taken to creeks, lakes and oceans. That’s why it is so important to not overuse fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides or herbicides. All those chemicals leach into our water supply!

Porosity and plant health

As plants become saturated with water, tiny pores, called stoma, open wide and the plant starts panting in a process called evapotranspiration. Just as we can see steam when we breathe on chilly days, plants exhale moisture along with other gases. When there is no water to be found, and the plant risks the other side of water stress, the stoma close, to hang on to every bit of moisture possible. When the ground gets muddy, whether from too much rain or over-watering, roots cannot breathe and the plant can drown. In the case of my nectarine, I used plastic tubing to redirect the standing water away from the tree. That’s not something I want to do every time it rains, so I will use these methods to improve the porosity around the nectarine tree:

• Aeration - Using my soil test rod, I will remove cylinders of soil from around the tree.
• Cover crops - I will plant a deep-rooted cover crop to help break up the soil.
• Compost - Top-dressing under my tree with compost will add organic material to the soil. I will have to check my soil test results to see if compost would be a good idea, or if mulch would be better. Too many nutrients are just as bad as not enough. Since I raise chickens, my compost has a lot of nutrients!
• Mulch - I will apply a thick layer of free arborist chips to encourage worms and soil microorganisms. This is the best way to improve the porosity (and health) of any type soil.

If you see standing water after a heavy rain, these tips can help you improve the porosity of your soil and the health of your plants.

UPDATE (1/10/2017) After heavy rains, I was very happy to see that the soil around my nectarine tree is draining very nicely. It really is amazing how effective just a little mulch, compost, and cover crop treatment can change an area for the better!

It is estimated that honey bees are responsible for pollinating one-third of all U.S. agricultural crops, including herbs, melons, cucumbers, almonds, berries, butternut and other squash, apples, pears, and peaches. Honey bees are not native to North America, so there are no native plants that require pollination by honey bees. Just the same, most gardeners are very happy to see honey bees in the garden.

All bees are considered beneficial insects. Sterile female worker bees are either pollen, nectar, or water collectors. Water collectors are very important to hive health. Water is used to regulate temperature and in the creation of food. In winter, the water is used to dilute crystalized honey. If a water collector returns to the hive and is immediately relieved of her water, she will know that the hive needs more. If she must wait a while before an in-hive worker takes the water, she will know that demand is not critical and fewer bees will search for water.

As nectar collectors travel from flower to flower, drinking as much nectar as they can, pollen grains stick to their legs in cup-shaped containers. As pollen is knocked off these worker bees, a wide variety of crops and flowers can be pollinated. The workers then return to the hive, loaded down with nectar and pollen, which are handed off to other bees within the hive. The water in the nectar is allowed to evaporate and voila! Honey is made!

Honey bee taxonomy

Honey bees are distinguished from their non-stinging cousins by honey production and the creation of ongoing communal nests made from wax. Honey bees are members of the Apis genus. Their Asian and European ancestors have been around for 34 million years. The most commonly managed honey bee species is Apis mellifera and it was the third insect to have its genome mapped! Of the 20,000 known species of bees, there are 7 species of honey bee, with 44 subspecies. The study of honey bees is called melittology.

During hot summer months, honey bees cool the hive with their wings and with a practice called bearding, in which bees hang on to each other and flap in the proverbial breeze until things have cooled off enough. During winter months, they huddle together in a winter cluster around the queen, to protect her from the cold. Honey bees consume honey stored in the hive during the winter

Honey bee communication

Honey bees communicate the location of food sources through a complex figure-8 dance called the waggle dance. They also instruct receiver bees to collect nectar from returning foragers with a tremble dance. Speaking of bee communication, it is traditional to talk to your bees, especially if you are going to be gone for a time, or if the beekeeper has passed away. Apparently, a hive will falter or fail if they aren't notified.

Honey bee pests and diseases

Honey bees have not evolved with an effective immune system. Their primary food, pollen, contains antibacterial components (if you are a bee). Varroa, tracheal and tropilaelaps mites, foulbrood bacterial infections, chalkbrood fungal infections, Nosema disease, and sacbrood virus are common honey bee diseases. If that weren’t enough, beetles, ants, wasps and hornets, wax moths and dragonflies attack bees or their hives.

Honey bees are also facing colony collapse disorder (CCD). This condition has many causes and was held responsible in 2008 for the death of 60% of the world’s honey bee population. It is considered normal to lose 10% of a honey bee colony during the winter months. Losses attributed to colony collapse disorder are reported as percentages of bees lost during a 12-month period, April through March. The figures I was able to find include 2014 (39%), 2015 (42.1%), 2016 (44%), 2018 (30%), and 2019 (37.7%). Unfortunately, accurate figures are difficult to find, but you get the idea.

How to attract honey bees

There are many plants that can be added to a landscape that will help you garner the benefits of improved pollination rates without raising bees. Of course, a small hive is simple to manage and fresh honey is amazing! Minimize the use of chemical pesticides and add these flowers to your landscape to bring honey bees into the garden: 

Swarming bees should be left alone. They are not aggressive.

Seed propagation

Some seeds, such as eggplant and watermelon, need quite a bit of heat to germinate. They also need long growing seasons to reach full flavor. You can start heat-loving seeds indoors, on heating mats specially designed for seed germination, to get a head start on the growing season. The fact is, different seeds germinate best at different temperatures. While you can certainly try planting earlier or later in the season, this generally ends up being a waste of time and seeds.

I have collected information from a variety of sources to create the table below, showing minimum and maximum temperatures, ideal temperature ranges, and the number of days it takes a species to germinate under ideal conditions at various temperatures. Take a close look at it (email me if you would like a pdf) and note how planting the same seed at different temperatures has a profound impact on how long it takes that seed to germinate.

What causes suckers?

Suckers can emerge when a tree is water stressed or as a natural response to warmer weather and moisture. Over pruning can also stimulate a tree to produce suckers. At the same time, regular pruning can help a tree stay healthy without initiating sucker production. And sometimes, trees just put out suckers and we don’t know why.

Spring emergence of suckers

In spring, it is not uncommon to see a cluster of new stems emerging from the base of the tree, or several feet away from the trunk. Most tree root systems are approximately three times the size of the tree canopy. Suckers can emerge anywhere along that root system. If you are trying to create an orchard or want to gift a clone of your tree to someone else, you can use these suckers to your advantage. When removing suckers for propagation, be sure to get some of the root tissue along with the sucker. These baby trees will need lots of TLC to get started: rich soil, frequent watering and filtered sun will help the roots start supporting themselves.

How to remove suckers

Unless you are trying to propagate new trees, all suckers should be completely removed. Suckers pull energy and nutrients from the tree. Removing suckers diverts that energy back into fruit production and the overall health of the mother tree. Do not use herbicides to kill suckers. As long as they are attached to the mother tree, you risk poisoning both.

Unlike other pruning jobs, where a clean cut is desirable, sucker removal is best done by ripping the sucker from its attachment. By tearing, rather than cutting, the bud is more likely to be damaged, reducing the chances of it coming back. If you (or your neighbor) have a tree that you want to reproduce and no suckers are available, you can always try grafting a scion.

NOTE: Most fruit trees are actually two trees grafted together. Horticulturists take the root stock of a growth hardy variety and then graft it to a variety that produces a desirable fruit or flower. You get the benefits of both. The problem with suckers is that they emerge from the root stock and not the fruit-producing variety. This is true of roses, as well. Unless you know for a fact that your fruit tree is not from grafted stock, it is best to tear off suckers and graft scions instead.

Stolons & rhizomes

Stolons and rhizomes behave very much like suckers. Stolons are stems that grow on or just below the soil surface, while rhizomes are roots that grow in the same region. In both cases, adventitious roots emerge from nodes to establish new plants. Strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, potatoes and mint propagate using stolons.

• High reproductive rates - every pest that is not killed off by pesticides carries resistant genetic information which is passed on to its offspring
• Exposure to plant toxins - pests have already evolved to become resistant to plant toxins; from their perspective, our pesticides are just another chemical to get used to
• Exposure to residual pesticides - pesticides that remain in the soil provide the stimulus to pests to develop resistance. Glyphosate has been found in lettuce and carrots a year after the chemical was applied! (This is the same reason why it is critical to take all of an antibiotic prescription, rather than stopping as soon as you feel better. That interruption in treatment is what causes resistant strains of human diseases.) 
• Vulnerability of predators - Predatory insect populations are smaller and have not evolved to deal with toxins, so pesticides are more likely to kill off beneficial insects

Using chemical pesticides too freely can actually strengthen the pests we are trying to eliminate!

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), U.S. pesticide use doubled from 1960 to 1980. Levels have remained stable or been reduced since that time. However, pesticide use in third world countries for export crops has increased to the point that they represent 99% of the human deaths by pesticides. 

There are several different types of chemical pesticides on the market today.

Organophosphate pesticides (Malathion, Naled) According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), organophosphates are the most commonly used pesticide. Initially developed as a biological weapon in WWII, organophosphates can cause paralysis, decreased mental function, and there may be links to ADD/ADHD and leukemia.

Organochlorine insecticides (DDT, Chlodane, Toxaphene) Organochlorine pesticides disrupt the peripheral nervous system. Most of these pesticides have been banned, globally, but stockpiles are still being used in some third world countries.    Toxaphene has a half-life of 12 years.

Carbamate pesticides (Sevin, Temik, Furadan) Carbamate pesticides work by inhibiting an enzyme that controls nerve messages and they are banned in Canada and the European Union. One carbamate product, aldicarb, poisoned nearly 2,000 people in 1985. Twenty years later, it was officially phased out of use in an “agreement” between the FDA and Bayer, the manufacturer. This case makes me feel a little nervous about using any pesticide.

Pyrethriod pesticides (Raid, Ambush, Anvil) Pyrethroids are organic compounds from the Chrysanthemum family. Synthetic versions of naturally occurring pyrethroids are currently the most common ingredient in over-the-counter insecticides. Unlike their natural cousins, synthetic pyrethroids are more toxic to humans and they stay in the environment longer. Pyrethroids were developed in response to the damage caused by DDT. Pyrethroids work by overexciting nerve cells to the point of paralysis or cell death. Unfortunately, pyrethroids are highly toxic to the bees, dragonflies, gadflies, mayflies, and invertebrates that make up many food webs. They are also highly toxic to cats. Human exposure to pyrethroids may result in neurological and behavioral changes similar to ADD/ADHD. Anaphylaxis has also been reported.

Sulfonylurea herbicides (Glean, Accent, Harmony) Sulfonylurea pesticides halt an enzyme that helps create certain protein cells. This particular pesticide has a tendency to linger in alkaline soils, such as we have, and they move through the soil to groundwater. Sulfonylurea can adversely affect nearby plants that you are trying to protect. 

Now, don’t let all these highfalutin’ words put you off. In fact, I challenge you to Google all of the ingredients in any product you use in the garden. Let’s see what we’re really up against when it comes to pesticides.

Pesticide alternatives

Rather than risking the uncertainties of political negotiations, accidental overuse, and the inevitable pesticide resistance, there are alternatives to pesticide use. First, be sure to identify the pests causing problems. If you are dealing with bagrada bugs, don't bother spraying. They will simply fly away until the toxins have dissipated.

Next, decide your tolerance level. I have two broccoli plants that are covered with aphids. I planted them at the wrong time of year (spring) and they never formed heads. Instead, I have a running supply of green leaves and protein-rich aphids for my chickens. The aphids seem to be perfectly content to stay on the broccoli plants and the abundant food supply is attracting other beneficial insects. Remember, many pesticides can kill beneficial insects, such as ladybugs, lacewings and parasitic wasps.

After identifying the pest and deciding how much you can tolerate, other methods can be used to combat pests on a small scale. As for my aphids, I could simply spray the plants each evening with a heavy stream of water from the hose. Rather than applying fungicides to my roses to prevent rust and brown spot, I place a large fan at the end of the row each damp morning to reduce moisture levels.

Pests need specific habitat and environmental conditions to become a serious threat to the garden. Interrupting just one aspect can minimize the damage, without adding toxins to your food supply and landscape. One effective method is the use of diatomaceous earth. Diatomaceous earth (DE) can be used as an insecticide against flea beetles, slugs and snails, mites, aphids, earwigs and thrips, without harming anything else. In fact, my hens love to take dust baths in the stuff and it is a common ingredient in toothpaste!

Do yourself and your garden a favor and take the time to learn about the ingredients in any pesticide or fertilizer you have on hand. If you decide not to use what you already have, please be sure to contact your local Hazardous Household Waste service for disposal instructions. These chemicals should never be thrown away in the trash.

Mites prefer soil that is high in organic content with plenty of moisture. Unfortunately, that describes nearly all of our container plants and many of the microclimates found in Bay Area gardens. A highly adaptable critter, there are over 42,000 species of mites worldwide. Aside from nest mites, dust mites, varroa mites, and many others that attack birds, animals, and bees, respectively, common garden mites include gall mites, spider mites, and thread-footed mites.

Mite damage

How could something so small be a threat to plant health? Well, normal leaf behavior includes water regulation. This is done by opening and closing small valves (stoma) on the underside of leaves. If there is too much water, the plant will drown. Not enough water, and critical life functions cannot occur. It’s an elegant balancing act until spider mites enter the scene. Using piercing mouthparts to puncture the leaf surface to feed, a mite-infested leaf will have thousands of tiny holes poked in it, allowing too much water to escape. A plant can go from healthy to near death in just a few days. Mites can significantly reduce citrus, berry, almond, and annual vegetable crops. They are a serious threat in our hot, dry climate.

Gall mites

Galls are areas of abnormal plant growth, similar to warts or benign tumors on animals and people. Gall mites get their name because, as they feed, deformations appear. Fuchsias are especially susceptible to gall mites.

Spider mites

Spider mites get their name because they build protective webs around eggs and feeding areas.  Three common spider mites are the two-spotted spider mite, the strawberry spider mite and the Pacific spider mite. They are often found on the underside of leaves, where they pierce plant cells to feed. These mites are very small, usually less than 1 mm (0.04”) long, so they are all too easy to overlook until the damage becomes significant. It doesn’t take long for a population to develop, either. A single female can lay 20 eggs a day and live for up to 4 weeks. Since each offspring hatches within 3 days and becomes sexually active in only 5 days, a single, fertilized female and her offspring can produce millions of spider mites in a single season!

An interesting note: female spider mites have two sets of chromosomes, like we do, but males only have one. If an egg is fertilized, it will hatch female. If it is not fertilized, it will hatch as a male. Also, female spider mites are able to “decide” whether to lay male or female eggs, depending upon environmental conditions. To control spider mites, insecticidal soap is your best bet. Neem oil can also help. If chemical pesticides are used, repeated applications will be necessary (and progressively ineffective, as mites can develop resistance).

Thread-footed mites

Most thread-footed mites, also known as white mites, feed on fungi and algae, a few varieties have evolved to attack leaves. Specifically, the cyclamen mite and the broad mite are able to inject toxins that thin the cell walls of mature leaves. Damaged leaves display puckering, twisting and stunting. 

Mite control

The only known effective chemical pesticides against mite infestations are endosulfan, dicol, and ethyl bromide fumigation. Endosulfan was globally banned due to its toxicity to humans and its ability to accumulate in an environment, Dicol is considered a “moderately hazardous” pesticide, closely related to DDT, and ethyl bromide is classified as carcinogenic and a reproductive toxin - not anything you want to be spraying on food plants.

​Broad spectrum pesticides do more harm than good because they also kill beneficial insects that feed on mites. You can buy predatory mites that help control mite infestations. If an infestation is discovered, sprays of water can be used to displace mites and make life harder for them. Garlic extract and oil of clove, rosemary, cinnamon, mint and others can also be effective. These natural treatments can be dangerous to plants, however, so use them carefully. The same goes for sulfur, especially on cucurbits. Observation and prevention are far easier than eradication.

Mite prevention

One of the easiest ways to avoid mite infestations is to create a quarantine area for new plants.  This protects established plants from new infestations and gives you the time needed to see if a new plant is carrying any pests or diseases. Also, proper irrigation reduces water stress in established plants, making them better able to protect themselves. Mites prefer dusty conditions, so keeping garden paths, trees, shrubs and other areas clean can significantly discourage mites. Encouraging beneficial insects, such as lady beetles, lacewing, and pirate bugs, by providing water and habitat, can significantly reduce mite populations without the use of pesticides or sprays.