Nematodes are microscopic round worms that live in the soil. There are beneficial nematodes and highly destructive varieties. Most nematodes live in or near plant roots because that’s what they like to eat. Often, they are carried into the garden on shoes and tools.

There are many types of nematodes. The most common Bad Guys are:

• Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species)
• Ring nematodes (Criconemoides xenoplax)
• Root lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus species) 
• Sugar beet cyst nematode (Heterodera schachtii) 
• Citrus nematode (Tylenchulus semipenetrans)
• Stem and bulb nematode  (Ditylenchus dipsaci)   

There are not many above ground symptoms, so identifying nematode infestations can be difficult. If you notice wilting during the warmest part of the day, even though the plants have enough moisture, lack of vigor, or chlorosis (yellowing leaves), it is time to take a look at the root system.

​Lush, healthy plants suddenly wilt and die, or disappear altogether. When you take a look, the plant falls over and you discover that the entire root system is gone! Reliable irrigation systems suddenly spring leaks for no apparent reason. And your yard is littered with crescent-shaped mounds of fresh dirt, with a plugged hole to one side. Yep, it’s gophers.

​Gopher identification

These little burrowing rodents also go by the name pocket gopher because they have external cheek pouches, or pockets, which they use to carry food and nesting material. Being diggers, they have long front claws, powerful front legs, short brown fur and small ears. They also have lips that can close behind their front teeth to keep dirt out of their mouth when they use their teeth for digging!

​Gopher lifecycle

Gophers are prolific. They can have up to three litters of 5–6 young each year. Gopher tunnels can cover an area 200 to 2,000 square feet in size and they can dig several tunnels a day. Feeding tunnels are 6"–12” below ground, but nesting and storage chambers may be as deep as 6’ underground. Gophers tend to live alone, unless it is a female raising her young. Gophers live approximately 3 years. Young gophers are able to reproduce when they are one year old. If you do the math, a single female gopher can produce over 36 babies in her lifetime!

Gopher control

The first step to controlling gophers is to identify the primary tunnel. To find the primary tunnel, you can buy a gopher probe or use a metal rod. The rod is inserted in the soil around a tunnel opening until a sudden give is felt. Continuing the process, you can follow the tunnel’s path to the gopher’s main route. Traps traps or poison baits can be placed at the tunnel entrance. Be sure that pets and children cannot access the bait. Gas or smoke fumigation of gopher tunnels is not effective; they simply wall off the gas until it dissipates. Professional exterminators can fumigate with aluminum phosphide to eliminate gopher populations.

Raised beds can be protected from subterranean invasions by installing 3/4” wire mesh at ground level. Chickens wire does not work. Valuable ornamentals can also be protected by digging a 2’ trench and installing wire mesh. The mesh should also be 1’ above ground. Unfortunately, this practice can damage roots and gophers can simply dig underneath the wire.

​Despite rumors to the contrary (and extensive advertising), ultrasonic devices are not effective. Neither is chewing gum. Cats, dogs, owls, snakes, and coyotes love to eat gophers.

Sweet, juicy summer favorites commonly include strawberries, blueberries, raspberries, and blackberries. Of course, in the world of botany, you'd be wrong on most counts.

What are berries?​

Botanically, berries are the fruit (pericarp) produced by a single ovary. By this definition, the following plants are all berries:

Berries that are not berries

Strawberries and raspberries are not berries. Weird, right? Strawberries are accessory fruits. The flesh of an accessory fruit is not made from the ovary. Instead, it is a protective growth from surrounding tissue. Raspberries and blackberries are aggregate fruits. Aggregate fruits are made from single flowers, but many ovaries that are held together in a cluster. Speaking of clusters, what about grapes? Yep, grapes are, by definition, berries.

Cultivated berries

Plants that produce berries are called baccate or bacciferous. [I wonder if that name comes from Bacchus, the Roman god of wine.] Most berries are sweet and delicious, but not all of them. Potato flowers produce berries, but don’t eat them - they’re poisonous! Elderberries and mulberries are fine to eat when ripe, but poisonous when unripe. People have been eating berries for as long as we have existed, but we’ve only been cultivating them for a few hundred years, so there’s probably a lot more to learn.

Berry plant basics

Generally speaking, nearly all berries are shallow-rooted plants that prefer southern or western exposure. They do best in loose soil, so you can help berry plants by working a lot of compost into any heavy clay before planting, especially for blueberries. Soil compaction will seriously interfere with berry production. The use of deep-rooted green manure crops, such as hairy vetch, mustard, fava beans, marigolds, or rye before planting will help loosen the soil, add nutrients, and reduce erosion in berry plantings.

Berries do well in raised beds and they prefer soil with a pH of 6.2-6.8 (slightly acidic). My soil tends to be more alkaline, and our water supply is very alkaline, so regular acidification may be necessary.
Over-the-counter pH tests are very useful in this regard, unlike DIY soil tests. I urge you to get your soil tested by a lab.

Berry pests and diseases

While each species has its own particular problems, most berries are susceptible to verticillium wilt and other fungal diseases. Crops should be rotated every 5 years to interrupt the pathogens’ life cycle. Commercial berry growers regularly fumigate with methyl bromide to combat black root rot. Methyl bromide is an ozone-depleting chemical that has been phased out of use in most other countries. You can help harvested berries last 30% longer by storing them in the refrigerator and only washing them just before eating.

Strawberry
​
People started cultivating strawberries commercially in the late 18th century. The Romans thought its wild cousin had medicinal uses due to the heart-shaped berry. Strawberries require an accumulation of 200-300 hours of temperatures between 32-50 °F to break dormancy. These are called chill hours. Strawberry flowers look hermaphroditic but they function as either male or female. New plants can be propagated using runners. If you want fruit, remove the runners. Like potatoes, strawberries are especially well suited to planting in towers. Powdery mildew, leaf spot, and leaf blight are common diseases, and pests include ants, fruit flies, slugs, moths, thrips, weevils, mites, and aphids.

Blueberry

Did you know that blueberries were not domesticated until 1911? Unlike strawberries, most blueberry varieties need 650-850 chill hours. What this means in warmer areas is that blueberry bushes may not know what to do with themselves after an extremely mild winter, Blueberries love acidic soil. They perform best in soil with a pH of 4.2-4.8. You can acidify soil by adding sulphur. Be sure to follow package directions when adding sulphur. According to researchers at Cornell University, nitrate-based fertilizers can be toxic to blueberries.

Blackberry/raspberry

Blackberries and raspberries are close cousins. Due to color variations, sometimes the only way to tell the difference is to pick them. If the torus (receptacle stem) stays with the fruit, it’s a raspberry, if it separates from the fruit, it’s a blackberry. Both varieties are called bramble fruits or caneberries, because the fruit is produced on bristly canes each year. First year canes (primocanes) produce palmately compound leaves and no flowers. Second year canes (floricanes) do not get longer. Instead, they produce lateral buds with 3-5 leaflets. At the ends of these lateral buds, fruit is produced on short stems called racemes. These members of the Rubus genus don’t seem to care what type of soil they are in.

​The most common problem with Rubus plants is insufficient pollination. You can improve the odds of pollination by installing plants that attract pollinators. Keep in mind, every time the tip of a cane reaches the ground, a new plant will start to grow, so it is important to trellis these berries, unless you want an impenetrable bramble patch! Birds, caterpillars, aphids, weevils and beetles are the biggest  pests. Anthracnose cankers can be treated with Bordeaux mixture (lime, water and copper sulfate).  Raspberries should not be planted where peppers, eggplants, tomatoes, bulbs or potatoes have been grown. These plants are often hosts for verticillium wilt, which can stay in the soil for many years.

​Traditional folklore says you should not harvest blackberries after Old Michaelmas Day (October 11th), because the devil has spit on them. Though it sounds funny, the truth behind the fiction is that cooler wet weather can cause certain molds to start growing on the fruit and may make it toxic. Once established, blackberries and raspberries will come back, year after year.

Currants

In 2015, I installed three young currant seedlings. They do well in our area and the fruit is delicious, but the summer heat really took a toll. There are three basic varieties of edible currants: blackcurrant, redcurrant, and white currant. They are, along with gooseberries, members of the Ribes genus. Despite the name, these fruits are not related to the dried currants used in baking; those are a type of grape. If you want to grow currant berries, you can’t live in New Hampshire, North Carolina, or West Virginia. If you live in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Rhode Island or Delaware, you’ll need a permit. These bans are in place because Ribes can carry White Pine Blister, an imported Asian rust fungus that has devastated high elevation pine forests.

​Currants generally prefer cool, well-drained soil, in partial shade or full sun. In our warmer climate, they prefer heavy soil (yay!) and partial shade. They can be grown as either shrubs or trees. Fruit is borne on spurs of 2- and 3-year old wood. Pests include aphids, spider mites, imported currantworms, and currant borers. Currants need a lot of potassium, but they are sensitive to potassium chloride, a common ingredient in fertilizer.

Whether or not it’s technically a berry, you can add these plants to your garden or foodscape for many years of delicious fresh food.

Mulch can be anything placed on top of soil to cover and protect it.

​Naked soil is vulnerable to erosion, weed seeds, compaction, and water waste. Mulching provides many benefits:

• Reduced water waste
• Temperature stabilization
• Reduced weed populations
• Reduced erosion and topsoil loss
• Improved soil structure and fertility

So, what makes a good mulch? 

A good mulch allows air and water to pass through easily, while blocking the sunlight needed by weed seeds for germination. Obviously, gravel fits that description, but do you really want to pick out all those rocks at planting time? Or, what about black plastic landscape cloth - doesn’t that do the same thing, without all the work? No, it doesn’t. Ultimately, the plastic will break down, allowing weeds easy access and adding chemicals to the soil. Instead, take advantage of natural processes and use plant-based mulches. They add nutrients and improve soil structure as they break down and they can often be found for free!

• Chipped and shredded tree trimmings--Most tree trimming companies are happy to give away full or partial truckloads of perfectly good mulch. Just be sure to inspect the material for palm tree pieces before it gets dumped on your driveway! Coarse wood chips make an ideal mulch. They break down slowly, improving soil structure and feeding the soil microorganisms that make plant life possible.
• Compost--Compost that is placed on top of the soil becomes a highly effective, nutrient rich mulch. 
• Grass clippings--Grass clippings are a nitrogen-rich mulch, which may lead to temporary nutrient fluctuations. Don’t leave them in piles, however, as they will stink to high heaven and may spontaneously combust!
•  Leaves--Rather than sending deciduous leaves to the landfill every autumn, they can be used as an excellent mulch or added to the compost pile.
• Pine needles--If you have a friend with a pine tree, they would probably be very happy to get rid of the needles. Pine needles are excellent mulch because they break down very slowly. Despite popular opinion, green pine needles only slightly alter soil pH and dried needles do not acidify it at all.
• ​Plant trimmings--As you work in the yard, you can create instant mulch with the chop and drop method. Simply chop up whatever you are pruning, right where you are, and let it fall to the ground the way nature intended.
• Straw/Hay--Local feed stores will occasionally offer free hay or straw that has gotten wet, making it unsellable. It still makes a great mulch, so long as it is spread while still wet. Wet hay bales have been known to smolder and burn, or even explode. Believe me, I speak from experience.

How to apply mulch

Mulch should be applied 2"–6” thick, depending on particle size. Smaller pieces fit together more closely, so you don’t need as much as for larger bits. If weeds are a serious problem, or you are eliminating a lawn, it is a good idea to use a really thick layer of wood chips. Be sure to keep mulch several inches away from trunks and stems. If mulch is in constant contact, problems such as crown rot can occur.

As worms, beetles, weather and microorganisms breakdown the mulch, you will need to add more mulch, usually every 3–5 years.

Creating and applying compost is one of the very best things a gardener can do for their soil.

Composting is the natural process by which organic materials are broken down, making them available to plants and microorganisms. It is a major component of pedogenesis, or soil creation. Without healthy soil, we begin to lose our food, water and air. Yeah, it’s kind of important.

More benefits of composting include:

• Less biodegradable materials end up in landfills
• Improves soil structure
• Reduces water consumption
• Reduces compaction and the need for aeration
• Improves permeability
• Reduces the use of carbon fuels
• Promotes soil fertility
• Stimulates healthy root development
• Reduces erosion
• Reduces the need for chemical fertilizers

One of the nicest things about composting is that bacteria and fungi do most of the work for you! Other organisms, such as worms and insects, also pitch in to help. Now, it is possible to simply dump everything in a pile and wait for nature to takes its course. Eventually, there would probably be a nutrient rich soil amendment, but it might take years. Or it can turn into a stinky, rotten mess. Follow these tips for successful composting in a reasonable amount of time.

Selecting a site for composting

• Place it close enough to the garden be convenient, but not bothersome.
• Avoid locations that are next to a house, fence, or other structure. Moisture and bugs do happen.
• The location can be on dirt or cement, in shade or sun If the compost pile is on dirt, that spot is going to provide some excellent growing in the future!
• The ideal size is a 3' cube, give or take. Smaller piles have a hard time getting warm enough. Larger piles tend to run out of air and are harder to flip.

Understand the process: Organic matter + air + water = compost

Organic matter consists of yard and kitchen waste that has been cut into 2” or smaller sized pieces. Smaller pieces compost faster because there is more surface area for decomposers to reach.

Organic matter is considered either “green” or “brown”. Green matter includes cut grass, pulled weeds, kitchen scraps and manure, and it is rich in nitrogen. Brown matter is rich in carbon and includes dried leaves, straw, and shredded newspaper. The ratio of green to brown is a major factor in how long it takes a compost pile to breakdown. “Hot” piles work fastest and use a 30:1 carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, while slower piles can have a 2:1 carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. If material is continually added to a single pile, it will slow the process. A better choice is to have 2 or 3 piles, at various stages of decomposition.

Meat and dairy in the compost pile?

Most recommendations warn against using meat, dairy, and grease in compost piles. Other people have no problems with it. Personally, I use the majority of my kitchen “waste” to make soup stock. The solids are then fed to my chickens. Whatever they don’t eat (along with what they did eat) ends up in the compost pile, bones and all. I have had no problems and my plants seem to appreciate the calcium. Of course, my dogs do a very good job of keeping opossums, rats, and raccoons out of my yard. It's your call. One other method of decomposition that uses fermentation, rather than decomposition does allow you to add meat and bones without difficulty. This method is called bokashi.

Decomposition

Decomposition is an aerobic process, which means it needs air. Air helps breakdown organic matter and those tiny workers need it, too! Air enters a compost pile by turning it every few days. [Read: good exercise.]

Water is needed for the same reasons as air: it aids in decomposition and it keeps microorganisms and other decomposers alive. Keep the compost as damp as a wrung out sponge and avoid simply watering the top, as this tends to cause runoff. Watering as the piles are turned works the best. If the pile gets too wet, spread it out and let it dry, or it will rot.

Temperature is another composting factor. As materials break down, especially the green ones, energy is released in the form of heat. If you’ve ever watched a big pile of freshly cut grass, you know exactly what I mean. Under the right conditions, a pile of grass clippings can burst into flames! (And it stinks to high heaven). Ideally, the right conditions will generate temperatures between 122 - 131 degrees Fahrenheit. If temperatures remain above 140 for at least 10 days, weed seeds and pathogens will be killed. If temperatures stay above 160, however, decomposers will die and the process will stop.

Because temperature is a factor, do not expect much out of a compost pile in winter. Material can still be added, or another pile started. In spring, the whole process will begin again. Also, if an area is especially hot or wet, cover the compost pile to maintain desirable moisture levels. Some people take composting very seriously and monitor temperature. I didn’t until I started composting the bedding from my chicken coop.

Composting manure

Animal bedding and manure are reasonably good sources of nitrogen and organic material, but they can make you sick. To be safe, manure must be composted for at least 45 days, 15 of which must be at temperatures between 131°F and 170°F, and turned at least 5 times. Assuming it hasn’t been recontaminated by air-dropped bird poop or other pathogens. Raw manure should never be applied to the soil while plants are growing. If it is, be sure that the manure does not touch the plants. Composted manure and bedding have significantly improved my soil health and helped to reduce compaction. Apparently, all those earthworms and burrowing beetles love the stuff!

​When is compost ready?

Compost is called “finished” when it is ready to use. There is simply no way to say how long finishing will take because of the factors already mentioned. Generally, speaking, under reasonably good conditions, a compost pile is ready for use within 45 to 60 days. Finished compost takes up 25-40% of the original occupied space, depending on its ingredients. Compost can be dug into beds before planting, a 2” layer can be applied over lawns as an amendment, or it can be used as mulch or top dressing. I like to add just a little compost to the bottom of potted plants before adding high quality potting soil and my plants seem to like it a lot.

Composting with worms

For those who do not have space for a compost pile, bin, or drum, try composting with worms! This is called vermiculture. Worm bins can compost an amazing amount of yard and kitchen scraps pretty quickly. Did you know that worms can eat their body weight in scraps every single day? Learn how to build worm bins and compost with worms at the UC Agriculture and Natural Resources page about worms.

Remember, composting is easy and it provides a powerful boost to the garden. Start composting today!

How to prevent cankers

The best prevention method is planting resistant cultivars. Also, installing plants best suited to the local microclimate helps them be strong enough to fight off pests and diseases. Good cultural care, such as proper pruning, watering, and feeding, will also help prevent infection. Remove dead and diseased limbs right away. Avoid heavy feeding since that may stimulate vulnerable new growth. Sunburn and overwatering can both make plants susceptible to various canker diseases. Many healthy trees have these pathogens present, but unhealthy trees are more likely to become sick, just like us.Some cankers are obvious and some are not. They are caused by fungal and bacterial microorganisms that infect the cambium layer of trees and shrubs. Cankers are very slow to heal and often do not heal at all. If the wound travels laterally, the sap found in the xylem and phloem cannot move and the branch dies.

Foliage on infected branches often turns yellow or brown and wilts. Cankers can encircle (girdle) and kill limbs or an entire tree. Common canker diseases include: Eutypa dieback, pitch canker, fire blight, Fusarium wilt, chestnut blight, pine blister rust, anthracnose diseases and sudden oak death.

Treating cankers

Once a fungal disease has taken hold, getting rid of it can be difficult. Most fungicide treatments are ineffective against fungal cankers, and the same is true for bacterial infections. Maintaining healthy plants allows them to fight for themselves.

Bee description

Bees have five eyes. Yep, five. They have two very large, compound eyes that pretty much cover their head, and three small eyes (ocelli), which are used to gauge light intensity. Male antennae have 13 segments, while females have 12. These antennae hold many sense organs that can detect touch, smell, taste, and “hear” by registering air movement. Bees have a long proboscis for drinking nectar; imagine a tubular tongue with suction powers. A bee’s thorax has three segments, each with its own pair of legs. The back two segments also have membranous wings. Many bees are orange and black.

Bees range in size from the tiny (0.08”) stingless species, to the largest (1.54”) leaf cutter species, the giant mason bee (Megachile pluto). Sweat bees (Halictidae) are the most common species in North America, but are often mistaken for wasps. The Arctic bee species, Bombus hyperboreus, actually attacks and enslaves other bees!

​Bee-havior (Sorry, I couldn’t resist!)

Most bees lives in colonies, but some bees are solitary. Honey bees, bumblebees and stingless bees live in eusocial colonies that feature a queen, female workers, and male drones. The word eusocial describes a highly organized social construct in which brood is cared for collectively, overlapping generations live together, and labor division that creates castes that are either reproductive or not. Carpenter bees, leaf cutter bees, sweat bees, and mason bees are solitary. 

Every female solitary bee is fertile and builds her own nest. These nests can be in hollow twigs, in holes chewed from wood, or in the ground. Some solitary bees share nests, but they do not interact. These collectives are called aggregations. Solitary bees do not produce beeswax or honey, and there are no workers. Solitary bees are prolific pollinators, though they tend to specialize on a single or a few plant species. Some solitaries specialize in collecting floral oils or aromatic compounds. In cases where there is only one pollinator for a specific flower, threatening the existence of one species threatens the other.

There are four species of nocturnal bee. They have enlarged ocelli that are hypersensitive to light, but cannot form images. Most of these are found in high elevation jungles because of the flowers in those regions that bloom only at night.

Bee enemies

Bees have many enemies. Birds, such as shrikes, swifts, swallows, jays, and flycatchers catch them flight. Large wasps, called beewolves, frequently dine on bees. Robber flies and dragonflies are also known to eat them. Raccoons, mice, skunks, voles and bears love to eat bees and honey. [Did you know that beekeepers wear white because dark colors make us look too much like bears to the bees?]

Bees are also attacked by parasites, such as varroa mites and tracheal mites, and bacterial infections that cause sacbrood, deformed wing virus, chronic bee paralysis, and black queen cell virus. They can also catch a fungal disease called chalkbrood. Public concern has increased as Colony Collapse Disorder becomes problematic.

Human interactions

People have been collecting honey from beehives for over 17,000 years and raising bees (apiculture) for honey, pollination, beeswax, propolis and royal jelly for nearly 5,000 years. Professional beekeepers have shifted their focus from honey production to contract pollination. For example, California’s almond crop is the world’s largest managed pollination event, attracting a million hives to its orchards each year.

Despite advertising claims, royal jelly collected from queen cells and bee pollen harvested from drones has not been proven to provide health benefits to humans. In fact, royal jelly and bee pollen can cause allergic reactions that lead to fatal anaphylaxis. On the other hand, bee venom acupuncture has been shown effective against some types of arthritis pain and inflammation.

Bee lifecycle

All bees start out as an egg. Newly hatched larvae do not have legs, but they have horns on their head! These whitish grubs have 15 segments, jaws for chewing food, and a gland under the head that secretes a liquid that solidifies into a silk they use to build a cocoon. After encapsulating themselves, they enter a pupal stage where they go through complete metamorphosis and emerge as a winged adult. 

Bee gender is determined by whether or not the egg was fertilized. Fertilized eggs are born female and unfertilized eggs are male. Fertile females store sperm in their bodies and “decide” whether to lay male or female eggs. Eggs are laid in cells along with a food supply. 

In colonies, workers continually feed the larvae in a process called progressive provisioning. Worker bees also secrete royal jelly from glands in their head. It is used to feed the queen and all larvae, regardless of gender or caste, for the first three days of life. When a new queen is needed, several small larvae are selected and placed in special queen cells, where they are fed copious amounts of royal jelly. This treatment triggers the development of queens.

Bee communication

Social bees communicate with each other by dancing. The figure-8 “waggle dance” communicates the location of food with three pieces of information: sun position, the earth’s magnetic field, and the polarization pattern of the sky. (It boggles my mind, too. Don’t feel bad. You can learn more here.)

Bees as pollinators

All bees are pollinators, which makes them beneficial insects. They fly from flower to flower, collecting pollen and nectar for the hive or their brood. In doing so, they carry pollen grains on hairy legs and in pollen baskets to other flowers. Nectar, which contains mostly sugar, is a fast energy source. Most of the pollen, which provides protein and other nutrients, is fed to baby bees (larvae), but enough is dropped that bees are responsible for pollinating the lion’s share of earth’s flowering plants.

After collecting pollen, nectar, and tree resins, workers return to the hive. Tree resins are converted into propolis, which is used to increase the structural stability of the hive and to prevent pests and diseases from entering. Propolis is also used to mummify dead intruders that are too large to be carried out. Propolis is used by people as a varnish for some stringed instruments. Propolis has been claimed as a skin cure-all. It shows some effectiveness in treating cold sores and other mouth lesions, but all other claims have yet to be proven.

Bees in the garden

As beneficial as bees are, it is important that we, as gardeners, do what we can to help them. In particular:

• Install plants, especially natives, that provide pollen and nectar.
• Avoid using pesticides and other chemicals.
• Create a water source, preferably one that keeps water moving.
• Educate and encourage others to do the same!

San Jose Scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus)
Accidentally imported from Asia in the 1870s, San Jose scale attacks apples, pears, and peaches. It is now found throughout North America. This species produce live young, called crawlers. A fertilized female can produce as many as 10 crawlers a day for 6-8 weeks - that’s over 500 offspring per scale!

Asian Cycad Scale (Aulacaspis yasumatsui)
Asian cycad scale was brought to the U.S. from Thailand and China on nursery stock. This pest has a 100% mortality rate for any cycad plant species that it infests. Spray insecticides have not been effective. Cycads are often called “living fossils” because they have been around since before the dinosaurs! While they look similar to palm trees, they are more closely related to pines. The most common cycad species is the Sago Palm. ​

Euonymus Scale (Unaspis euonymi)
Another Asian import, eponymous scale attacks spindle trees, wintercreeper, Western burning bush, and strawberry-bush across the U.S. They attach themselves to the underside of leaves, causing stippling and chlorosis. Males and females can girdle twigs and branches, causing die-off. Males look like white exclamation marks and females are mottled brown.

Armored scale lifecycle

Scale insects can have up to three generations each year. Male scales are tiny golden winged insects that normally emerge to coincide with apple blossoms. The females emit pheromones that attract the males. Crawlers (nymphs) are bright yellow and they resemble spider mites. They either walk or are blown to a new location where they undergo distinct changes. The first stage (instar) occurs when the nymph secretes a white, waxy covering, known as the white-cap stage. The second instar is called the black-cap stage because a darker scale covering is secreted. If the nymph is male, it will go through two more non-feeding instars before taking flight.

How to control armored scale

San Jose scale is often controlled naturally by several varieties of chalcid wasps and lady beetles. Insecticidal sprays and horticultural oils can be used to reduce infestations. Severely affected limbs should be removed and destroyed. Pesticides can be used effectively, but remember that you are putting poison in your yard.

The best control methods are regular inspections and pruning that improves overall plant health and air flow.

Cucumber mosaic is a viral disease caused by the Cucumber mosaic cucumovirus (CMV). This disease has the widest global host range of any plant virus.

Spread by aphids,, it can also come into your garden on shoes, tools, and seeds. It occurs on all cucurbits except watermelon.

Cucumber mosaic controls

As prevalent as the mosaic virus is, planting resistant varieties is the best control. Once an outbreak occurs, all affected plants should be removed and thrown away. Reflective mulch can help repel aphid vectors. Chemical pesticides and insecticides have not been proven effective.

These members of the Evening Primrose family (Onangracea) generally love filtered light and will even thrive in shady areas. They do not perform well in full sun. I hang mine in a basket from a branch in one of my orange trees. It looks pretty when it’s blooming and I don’t even notice it when it’s not.

Fuchsias prefer overhead watering and will need to be watered frequently during our hot summer months. Spider mite and fuchsia gall mite damage can be minimized with insecticidal soap. During flower production, feed a complete fertilizer every few weeks or use delayed release plant food stakes (my personal choice for containerized ornamentals).

In winter, I leave mine alone completely, and every spring it comes back adding a lovely touch of color. The hummingbirds seem to like it, too!

Fertilizer is one of those things that falls under the, “Too much of a good thing is a bad thing” category. All too often, at the first sign of unhealthy plants, people grab a bag of fertilizer before checking for inhospitable soil conditions, unhealthy roots, irrigation problems, nutrient toxicities, and pest or disease infestation. ​

​N, P & K

Most gardeners are familiar with the three numbers displayed on bags and boxes of fertilizer, but we’ll do a quick review, just to be sure. Those three numbers represent the percentage by weight of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Think about this for a moment. A 10-pound bag of 10-20-10 fertilizer contains 1 pound nitrogen, 2 pounds phosphorus, 1 pound potassium, and 6 pounds of filler. Yes, filler. If all your plants need is nitrogen, blood meal may be a better choice.

Plant nutrients

Plants use 16 chemical elements as food. Those elements include oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, along with 13 mineral nutrients. Those mineral nutrients are broken down this way:
   Macronutrients
        Nitrogen (N) - leaf growth
        Phosphorus (P) - root, fruit and flower growth
        Potassium (K) - stem and cell growth
    Secondary Macronutrients
        Calcium (Ca)
        Magnesium (Mg)
        Sulphur (S)    
    Micronutrients
        Copper (Cu)
        Iron (Fe)
        Manganese (Mn)
        Molybdenum (Mo)
        Zinc (Zn)
        Boron (B)

Soil tests

Before applying fertilizer, invest in a good soil test. It’s worth it. And it’s a fascinating snapshot of what is really going on in the garden. Now, I don’t mean one of those over-the-counter test tube kits. Those are a waste of money, in my humble opinion. When searching for a soil lab, it is best to pick one near you. The east and west coasts have very different soils (ours is alkaline; theirs is acidic, for one thing). This means that different types of tests are used to analyze soil samples. 

I learned some surprising facts about my soil when I sent in a sample. Most important, I learned that my soil already has a ton of everything, except iron. Without iron, the plants weren’t able to absorb the abundance of available nutrients. Adding fertilizer would have been a complete waste of time and money. Instead, because I had the knowledge, I was able to apply a foliar (leaf) spray of iron and my garden plants had access to everything they needed! So, get your soil tested before adding anything.

Types of fertilizer

If you are like me and prefer a more natural approach, use compost instead of fertilizer. Since I raise chickens, composting is even more effective. Chicken poop is high in nitrogen, and practically anyone can raise hens or build compost. Yard and kitchen scraps that would normally end up in landfills can be transformed into nutrient rich compost that that also improves soil structure.

If you decide fertilizer really is necessary: READ THE BAG. Seriously. Federal law requires that specific instructions and useful information are printed on the container, and for good reason. Follow directions carefully and wash your hands when you’re done. Technically, there is no chemical difference between nitrogen from compost and nitrogen formulated in a lab. Nitrogen is nitrogen. The difference lies in everything else. What are the fillers? What else is in the compost that plants need? Honestly, there’s a lot we don’t yet understand about how living things interact. I prefer to err on the natural side, just in case.

​For a hysterical read about the effects of too much fertilizer, check out Don Mitchell’s Moving/Living/Growing Up Country series.

Earwigs are second only to slugs and snails in crop destruction.

Members of the order Dermaptera, the earwig most commonly found in North America is the European earwig (Forficula auricularia). Earwigs were introduced accidentally in the early 1900’s. The word Dermaptera comes from Greek words that mean ‘skin wing’. Contrary to the old wive’s tale that claims earwigs lay their eggs in human ears, which is not true, the name actually comes from the uniquely ear-shaped hindwings, which are rarely used.

Earwigs are easily recognized by their pinchers, or forceps, on the back end. You can tell the gender of an earwig by the shape of these pinchers. Males have curved pinchers, while female pinchers are straight. While they generally don’t bite, they can and will if they get caught in your clothing or hair. Mature earwigs average 3/4” in length.

Protected from sunlight and heat in a dark, moist place during the day, earwigs emerge at night to hunt and feed. 

On one hand, earwigs are beneficial insects because they eat aphids, mites and other insects. On the other hand, earwigs are serious pests, especially in the spring. Earwigs can decimate young seedlings in a single night and cause serious damage to soft fruits such as figs, peaches, nectarines and berries. Earwigs can also damage many flowers, including zinnias, marigolds, and dahlias.

It is relatively easy to trap earwigs using a moistened, tightly rolled up newspaper. Earwigs will seek out the cool, damp sanctuary in the predawn and you can simply toss them in a plastic bag and put them in the trash or feed them to your chickens. Another simple trap consists of an empty tunafish can with 1/2” of oil or bacon grease in the bottom. Soy sauce can be added for even better effectiveness. Sink the tins near fences, walls and large shrubs, to ground level. The earwigs will drown themselves.

Earwigs prefer a more moist environment than our normal hot summers, so limiting access to moisture is another way to reduce earwig populations. Pesticides are generally ineffective against earwigs.

Male carpenter bees look like golden teddy bears!

These solitary bees got their name because of the way they tunnel into unfinished soft woods, such as pine, redwood, and fir. They also burrow into fences, sheds, and other wooden garden structures. These tunnels are used as nests for overwintering and creating new brood in the spring. Some of these tunnels can be as much as 10’ long!

This tunneling can weaken wood. Fill holes with steel wool and wood putty to protect trees, buildings and fences, once the bees have emerged. After treating the area, painting over the surface will help discourage the bees. You can use insecticides, in extreme cases, but it is better to create a habitat for them, because they are beneficial insects. Like honeybees, they are heavy pollinators. As they collect nectar and pollen from flowers, they pollinate your crops, increasing productivity.

One way to protect your fences and buildings, while enjoying the advantages of higher pollination rates, is to build a Carpenter Bee habitat. Simply take a chunk of soft wood and drill a bunch of 1/2” holes in one side. You can also use a bundle of 1/2” bamboo segments. Then mount it to a fence or post, to get it off the ground, and cross your fingers.

​NOTE: The male carpenter bee in the video was released after filming. ;-)

Spring is the time of year when it is common to see white powdery patches appear on leaves. This bane of gardeners is called powdery mildew, and it can occur at other times of the year.

​What starts as a small white spot, powdery mildew expands to engulf an entire leaf as the nutrient-sucking fungi bleed the life from your garden. It grows on both sides of the leaves and sometimes on the stems.

What is powdery mildew?

The white powder on leaves is thin layers of fungal tissue (mycelium). Other symptoms of powdery mildew include yellowing leaves, leaf distortion and death, and yellow patches on leaves (especially on tomatoes, peppers, onions, and artichokes). Cucumber, melon and other cucurbits are also susceptible to powdery mildew. You may also see it on peas, artichoke, beets, grapes and wheat.

Powdery mildew is a fungal disease. It is caused by different types of fungi (e.g., Erysiphe spp., Sphaerotheca spp.), depending on which plant is affected. Contrary to common belief, moisture and humidity do not trigger these fungal beasties

How does powdery mildew grow?

The only thing powdery mildew fungi need to survive and thrive is living plant tissue. Spores can travel in the wind, so the battle never ends. These microorganisms prefer shade and temperatures between 60°F to 80°F, so the disease may seem to disappear in summer, but don't be misled. Spores remain dormant until conditions improve.

Powdery mildew weakens a plant, lowering production and increasing the susceptibility to other pests and diseases such as citrus blast. Leaf drop can also lead to sunburn damage.

Powdery mildew management

Prevention and vigilance are the best ways to counteract powdery mildew. These tips can help, but nothing will eliminate powdery mildew in the garden:

• Install resistant varieties.
• Change the species of annual plantings to break the fungal life cycle.
• Monitor plants for new spots of white mycelium and remove infested leaves.
• Plant in sunny areas.
• Provide good air circulation with plant spacing and  pruning.
• Avoid applying excess fertilizer.
• Apply horticultural oil. (Not within four weeks of applying sulfur, or your plants will BURN!)
• Apply sulfur products before symptoms appear, but only when temperatures are below 90°F.
• Apply fungicides as a last resort.

Biological fungicides can also be applied, though they are less effective than oil or sulfur. Some people recommend spraying plants with a baking soda solution, but this can add too much salt to your soil.

Recent research shows that spraying the soil with milk before planting can reduce powdery mildew, followed by spraying the leaves of susceptible plants.

If you slice into a stalk of celery, you will be able to see vascular bundles that carry water, nutrients and hormones throughout the plant. These vascular bundles, or veins, are made up of the xylem and phloem. ​

The xylem mostly carries water. Xylem is Greek for wood, so an easy way to remember the word meaning is to think “water wood”. The xylem also carries some mineral salts, but that is mostly the job of the phloem. Generally, the xylem is found closer to the center of a stem, while the phloem is closer to the outer edge.

The most interesting thing about the xylem is that it pulls water upward from the ground, against gravity. If you’ve ever picked up a bucket full of water, you know this isn’t always easy. There is some debate about how this actually occurs, but most botanists agree that it has a lot to do with surface tension.

Water molecules like to stick together. As a plant breaths, evapotranspiration occurs, reducing the amount of water in the leaves and stem. The water in the ground in then pulled upward by the water in the above ground portion of the plant. The structure of the xylem helps support the water molecules as they are drawn up. 

Xylem vessels are actually made up of elongated cells that are dead. Weird, right? These cells are arranged end to end, with little openings between each cell. There are secondary xylem cells that contain lignin. Lignin is found in cell walls and it is what holds plants upright.

Diseases of the xylem include Fusarium wilt, root rot, damping off, and tomato spotted wilt.

Children's activity: This is crazy easy and the kids seem to really enjoy it. Simply take several celery stalks and place them in separate cups or glasses. To each cup, add some water and a few drops of a specific food coloring. As the stalks pull the water up, they bring the dye too, and the color changes can be striking. (It works faster if you trim the base of each stalk to create fresh openings for the vascular tissue.)

Dinner wouldn’t be nearly as delicious without plants from the Allium genus. Ornamental Alliums also attract beneficial insects to your garden. ​​

How to grow Alliums

These shallow-rooted plants prefer soil that holds a lot of organic material and that means adding compost before planting. They will grow just about anywhere, but heavy clay soil can slow their growth. Alliums can be grown in partial shade to full sun. They grow well in raised beds and containers. You can grow chives in a pot on your kitchen windowsill for easy access while cooking!

Growing Alliums from seed can be hit and miss. The plants are slow starters and they don’t handle competition (weeds) very well. You can plant seeds in containers or directly in the garden. Seeds should be sown 1/2” deep and 1/2” apart. Thinned plants can be eaten as scallions.

Another way to plant Alliums is in the form of “sets”. These sets are mature bulbs that can be planted directly in the ground or a container. Follow the package directions for depth and spacing. The only downside to sets is that they tend to bolt. Bolting is the beginning of the going-to-seed process. If you are growing onions, leeks, or garlic, plants that have started bolting should be harvested right away, unless you plan to collect your own seeds.

Garlic and onions are best planted October through January.

No, we’re not talking about faulty wiring, or that jar full of pennies.

Copper (and sulfur) have been used as fungicides and bactericides in gardens and agriculture for a really long time. Unlike Bordeaux mixtures, which use highly soluble copper sulfate, fixed copper takes much longer to break down. Each time it gets wet, fixed copper releases just a little more metallic copper onto plants.

Shopping for fixed copper

When shopping for fixed copper products, it is not uncommon to see a wide range of active ingredients. To get your money’s worth, look for higher “metallic copper equivalents” (MCE) on the label. MCEs are listed as a percentage by weight, with the most common rating being 8%.

Fixed copper can take any of these forms:

• tribasic or basic copper sulfate
• cupric hydroxide
• copper oxychloride sulfate
• copper ammonium complex

There is also a copper soap (copper octanoate) available that has shown good results.

How to use fixed copper

The effectiveness of fixed copper against fungal diseases can be improved by adding 1% of a horticultural (not dormant) oil. The oil will help the copper stick to plants longer. It will also reduce damage caused by aphids, mites, and scale. Fixed copper is normally applied using a hand pump spray tank (pictured) or a hose end sprayer.

Fixed copper should be applied while plants are dormant and it is important to get complete coverage. Once new buds and shoots begin to emerge, phytotoxicity can be avoided by spraying on days when the fixed copper will dry quickly.

Avoid using other foliar (leaf) sprays when applying fixed copper. According to the Michigan State University Extension, “[A]void the use of spray additives such as foliar nutrients, and any surfactants with penetrating characteristics when applying coppers. Fixed copper and lime should not be used with Guthion, Imidan, Sevin, Thiodan, Bayleton, captan, carbamate (Ferbam), syllit, or phosphorus acid-type compounds (Fosphite, ProPhyt, Phostrol, Agri-Fos, Aliette).” 

Problems associated with fixed copper
​
Even though fixed copper is an acceptable organic control, excessive use can raise copper levels in the soil to toxic levels. Once in the soil, copper may leach into local groundwater. It can also be toxic to aquatic organisms and many animals (but not humans).

As with the use of any chemical in the garden, be sure to read the label completely and follow directions exactly.

Mature click beetles are not much of a threat to garden plants. They are a lot of fun hold, however. One moment they are sitting on your hand and the next (Click!) they are gone! Their larval forms are something else altogether. Wireworms burrow into the roots, stems, and tubers of many garden plants. Favorite foods include potatoes, beets, carrots, peas, beans, melons, and onions.

If you suspect wireworms, leave a couple of carrots out on the ground overnight and see what's there in the morning. If wireworms are present in significant numbers, the area may need to be plowed and allowed to go fallow. Drying out the soil significantly reduces wireworm populations. If you are not fully committed to going organic, there are some pesticides that are effective against wireworms, including ETHOPROP (Mocap). If pesticides are used, be sure to follow package directions exactly and completely. Small populations are not a big concern.

I use mosquitofish in a kiddy wading pool that is enjoyed by my feet and my dogs all summer long. 

Mosquitofish are small freshwater fish that love to eat mosquito larva. They also eat beetles, mites, mayflies, and tiny zooplankton. Females can reach over 2-1/2" in length and males are smaller, at 1-1/2".

Vector control with mosquito fish

Vectors are disease-carrying insects and animals, and mosquitoes are one of the worst. Mosquitoes have been the bane of humanity for a really long time. Currently, it is estimated that 700 million people worldwide get sick or die every year because of the diseases carried by mosquitoes. The newest threat to human health, the Zika virus, is another mosquito borne disease that can cause brain damage and death. And it can be found locally. We’re not messing around here. This is serious stuff. Adding mosquitofish to water features in the garden is an effective method of reducing those risks. And who wants an itchy mosquito bite anyway?

Mosquitos can breed in a bottle cap's worth of water. Every place that water can collect is a potential breeding ground. Here are many commonly overlooked mosquito breeding grounds:

Ground cover refers to low-growing, spreading plants that help prevent erosion, weeds, and water loss.

Bare dirt in the garden is not a good thing. Naked soil is vulnerable to wind and water erosion, compaction, and nutrient leaching. The Dust Bowl of the 1930’s is a perfect example of what happens when soil is not managed properly. Topsoil is a precious commodity and we all need to work to protect it. Ground cover is an excellent method that requires very little effort and improves biodiversity in the garden.

Benefits of planting ground cover

As the roots of ground cover plants work their way deeper into the soil, they help prevent erosion and the loss of nutrient rich topsoil and water. The leaves and stems shade the ground, stabilizing temperatures. Ground cover plants also reduce the chance that weeds will grow.

Ground cover plant selection

Ground covers are traditionally shorter plants, but they come in a variety of heights, colors, and textures. There are five basic types of ground cover: 

• vines 
• herbaceous (non-woody) plants
• shrubs
• moss
• grasses

Look at lists of your region's native plants  for some low-maintenance ground cover plants. Keep in mind, when selecting ground cover, that many of these plants will spread and fill an area. Invasive plants, such as Algerian or English ivy, ice plant, periwinkle (Vinca major) and licorice plant should not be used. In theory, traditional sod lawns are a form of ground cover, but they are unsuitable for drought-prone areas, requiring unsustainable amounts of water. 

Yarrow (above) makes an excellent ground cover. It can grow as tall as 2’, but will maintain a low growth if it is mowed occasionally while still young. It grows well in difficult clay soil and its soft feathery texture feels wonderful on your feet! Oregano and other low-growing herbs smell wonderful as you walk on them, and curly endive is surprisingly durable. If you don’t mind some height, annual rye grass has been shown to put roots down as far as 40”, helping to break up compacted soil. Mustard can help, too.

Ground cover vs. cover crop

Cover crops are usually grown with the intention of cutting them off at soil level and leaving them on top to decompose, or digging them into the soil, to return all of the nutrients contained in the plants back to the soil. Ground covers are plants grown with the intention of leaving them to continue growing indefinitely.