_-_12735329344.jpg) Spanish lime fruit and seed (Kristof Zyskowski & Yulia Bereshpolova) CC BY 2.0 Spanish limes (Melicoccus bijugatus) are edible, tropical sweet-tart fruits from the soapnut family. The Greek and Latin parts of its name translate as honey seed. Native to northern South America, the fruit is a drupe. Drupes are single stony seeds covered by fleshy fruits, like an apricot.
You can grow Spanish lime trees in USDA Hardiness Zones 10A to 11. You can also grow them in containers, which can be brought indoors or moved to more protected locations if your winters are less than tropical. These trees prefer full sun and moist, well-drained, slightly acidic soil (pH 6.0–6.5). Fragrant flowers appear in late spring to early summer. They are white with four petals and eight stamens. The trees are slow and steady growers.
Fruits start out yellow, then turn green and develop a pink blush as they ripen. Mature fruits are approximately two inches (5 cm) in diameter. The skin is somewhat spiky, so gloves are recommended during harvest. Common pests of Spanish limes include aphids, citrus leaf miners, and scale insects. You can use insecticidal soap or neem oil to control those pests. The only disease I saw mentioned was citrus greening disease, also known as huanglongbing. These fruits do not store well unless you can them, so eat them as they ripen. They can be used in margaritas, pies, salsa, and smoothies. See if you have a sunny spot for this lush, productive shade tree in your landscape for planting next spring. When I first saw the name raspberry horntail, my mind conjured up a ripe, red raspberry with a ram’s horn tail. Of course, raspberry horntails are nothing like that, but it was a fun image. The truth about these parasitic wasps is less fun.  Adult male raspberry Horntail (Whitney Cranshaw, CSU) CC BY-SA 3.0 Raspberry horntails are a type of sawfly. Sawflies get their name from the saw-like ovipositor used by females to insert eggs under a plant’s skin. These pests prefer raspberries, but they will also feed on blackberries, other bramble fruits, and roses. You may run into some confusion when talking with others about raspberry horntails (Phylloecus (formerly Hartigia) cressonii) because there are raspberry cane borers (Oberea bimaculate), which are frequently called raspberry horntails or raspberry cane girdlers. Or your friend may be talking about raspberry sawflies (Monophadnoides rubi). Yes, it can be confusing sorting all this out sometimes, but photos can help. [Unfortunately, I could not find an available image of a female raspberry horntail.]
Let’s start with symptoms. As new canes form, typically in spring, raspberry horntails lay their eggs under the surface. If you look closely, you may see small, round, discolored areas where the eggs were laid. If you can get to one, raspberry horntail eggs do not look like what you might expect. They are white, oblong, and they have a flattened, curved point at one end. When those eggs hatch, young larvae spiral upward inside the canes where they feed just below the cambium layer. This causes cane tip wilting. It also weakens the plant and can cause dieback. Infested canes may also twist or become crooked. Infested canes are more susceptible to breaking, frost damage, and other pests and diseases. As larvae grow, they turn around and head lower in the cane, feeding on both the inner cambium layer and the pith. This significantly reduces flower and fruit production. Eventually, the larvae create silk-lined apartments in which they overwinter. As temperatures rise in spring, larvae pupate and then emerge as adults. But it is the larvae who cause the damage. Raspberry horntail larvae are white and can be up to one inch long. They have hard brown heads and a tiny spike on the other end. Pupae are slightly smaller and tan. Adults are only half the size of their fully grown larvae, with narrow bodies and long antennae. Males tend to be black with orange and yellow markings, while adult females are gold to orange with black spots. .jpg) Rose sawfly larvae are very similar to raspberry horntail larvae (James Solomon, USDAFS) CC BY 2.0 us If you suspect a raspberry horntail problem, prune about six inches below the cane tip and slice the removed bit in half lengthwise. If it looks like the infestation extends lower than what you have in your hand, remove more of the cane.
These pests are not generally a serious problem, but it pays to regularly inspect your raspberry plants. Bag and dispose of any infested material in the trash. Do not add it to your compost pile. Unless you can time applications to coincide perfectly with egg-laying in your area, insecticides are not recommended, since larvae and pupae are protected inside the cane, and adults simply fly away. Keeping your raspberry plants healthy is always your first line of defense. As kids, we called them helicopters. Double- and single-winged seed pods fell from trees by the thousands each autumn, and we would gleefully fling them into the air to watch them spin earthward. My grandson does the same thing now, but I think he prefers calling them whirlybirds. .jpg) Silver maple samara (USGS Bee Inventory and Monitoring Lab) Public Domain Looking closely, you may be surprised to see how much samaras look like insect wings. They probably evolved in a similar manner for the same reasons. Botanically, they are called samaras. Samaras are a type of fruit, called achenes. The seeds we blew from ripe dandelions are also achenes. Achenes are indehiscent, simple dry fruits. [Indehiscent means they do not split open the way pea pods do.]  Vine maple samara (Walter Siegmund) CC BY-SA 3.0 Samaras are notable for their papery wings. You can use the number of wings and the position of the seed to help identify the tree in question. If the seed is found in the middle of a pair of wings, it is likely to be bushwillow, elm, or hoptree.
If the seed is found at one end, it is ash, mahogany, or maple. British sycamores (Acer pseudoplatanus) may have three or four wings.
Sweet, juicy, and generally easy to grow, berries are a great reason to garden. We have already discussed blackberries, boysenberries, loganberries, raspberries, and youngberries, but dewberries are a little different.  Dewberries (James H. Miller & Ted Bodner, Southern Weed Science Society, Bugwood.org) CC BY_SA 3.0 Unlike those other berries, most spiny dewberry canes grow along the ground, sending out roots as they go. Because they spread so easily, they are sometimes referred to as beneficial weeds. There are several species of dewberry found throughout the Northern Hemisphere. There are two main categories of dewberry: European (Rubus Caesii) and American (R. Flagellares). Within the American section, there are several species to choose from, all of which are native to the region east of the Rocky Mountains. Dewberries can be grown in USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5–10 and tend to prefer coastal, sandy areas with temperatures between 50°F and 70°F (10°C to 21°C). Some species are more upright than others.  Dewberry cane in flower (Fritzflohrreynolds) CC BY-SA 3.0 Fragrant white flowers bloom from late winter to early spring and turn into small, green berries. As the berries ripen, they change from red to black or purple by mid to late spring. These are some of the first berries you can harvest each year. When they are dark and fully ripe, they hold tightly to the plant and can be easily squashed, so handle them carefully when picking.
Be sure to consider their growth habits when selecting a site for dewberries. They can easily turn into a thicket that can be challenging to manage. You can grow dewberries from seeds or cuttings. Plants should be installed in early spring and spaced three feet apart. They are best trained up a trellis, protected from strong winds. They prefer full sun but can also be grown in partial shade. This is especially true in areas with scorching hot summer temperatures. It takes a few years for dewberries to start producing fruit, but once they do, you will probably have a lifetime supply. Dewberries can also be grown in large containers. In either case, they will benefit from top dressings of aged compost. Aphids, cane borers, dewberry mites, leaf beetles, peach blossom moths, and spider mites may be attracted to your dewberries. So will chipmunks, deer, fox squirrels, raccoons, white-footed mice, and many other mammals. But these plants are rugged. Overwatering and poor drainage are more likely to cause fungal problems, such as blight, downy mildew, fruit, root, and stem rots. As with other bramble fruits, remove spent canes with a pair of high-quality bypass pruners to improve air flow and promote new growth. Did you know that boysenberries are a cross between loganberries and dewberries? Now you know. Is it a cucumber or something else entirely? Also known as snake cucumbers, snake melons, and yard-long cucumbers, Armenian cucumbers (Cucumis melo var. flexuosus) are more muskmelon (C. melo) than cuke (C. sativus). These are not to be confused with another long member of the melon family, serpent gourds, which also taste like cucumber. Long, skinny, and ridged, Armenian cucumbers taste like common cucumbers, but their skin is thinner and lighter than grocery store cucumbers. There are three types of Armenian cucumber that I know of: regular, striped, and dark green. In each case, these crisp fruits can grow three feet (90 cm) long and they can handle all the heat your summers can dish out.  Armenian cucumber (Katpatuka) Public Domain You can start Armenian cucumbers from seed any time from late winter through early summer, as long as soil temperatures are consistently above 65°F (18°C). As far as these plants are concerned, hotter is better. And they don’t turn bitter the way true cucumbers do.
Seeds should be planted one inch deep, and plants should be at least 12” apart. You can allow the vines to stay on the ground or train them up a trellis. Your Armenian cucumbers need full sun, but they will still produce abundant crops even if they get some afternoon shade. Because these plants are susceptible to the same problems as other cucurbits, crop rotation is an excellent preventative measure. Aphids, cucumber beetles, fruit flies, pill bugs, and spider mites are the most common pests of Armenian cucumbers. Overhead watering Armenian cucumbers often leads to anthracnose, black rot, blight, downy mildew, powdery mildew, root rot, and rust. Instead, water deeply using furrow irrigation and allow plants to dry out between waterings. If your Armenian cucumbers get away from you and grow extra-large, you may cut into them and discover the mucilage around the seeds has turned orangish and the flesh may taste less cucumber-like. You can still eat it, but this is the best time to select seeds for saving for next year.
Young fruits are dark to medium green with light green, longitudinal stripes. As the fruit matures, the blossom end and flesh begin to turn red and bitter. This is when serpent gourds are used as a tomato replacement. In some regions they are called snake tomatoes. The leaves, shoots, and tendrils of serpent gourds are also edible and commonly eaten as greens.  Snake gourds (Aruna) CC BY-SA 3.0 Seeds should be planted one inch deep, and plants should be at least 12” apart. You can allow the vines to stay on the ground, but they perform best when trained up a trellis. The fruits are very impressive, hanging overhead. You may want to intercrop your serpent gourds with red noodle beans for an especially impressive display.
Your serpent gourds need full sun, but a little afternoon shade is fine. Are plants less nutritious these days?
It ends up, they are. Before we learn about that, what determines how nutritious a piece of fruit or a salad is in the first place? The nutritional value or mineral content of food crops is dependent on the following factors:
Several decades ago, our fruits and vegetables contained significantly more nutrients than they do today. We have traded quality for quantity, becoming overfed and undernourished, something we cannot continue indefinitely. So, how did it happen? And what can we do about it? Primarily, it comes down to soil depletion. Modern agriculture grows so much, so fast that the soil does not have time to recover. We may add nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and secondary nutrients, but soil health isn't that simple. There is an astounding chemical, electrical, and biological dance that happens underground to make plants (and people) healthy. The more chemicals we use, the less likely the soil is to produce healthy crops. A study published in 2004 in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition at the University of Texas at Austin noted “reliable declines” of the nutrients in our food plants over the previous 50 years. Donald Davis and his team pointed out that produce has been grown with an eye for appearance, disease and pest resistance, productivity, and shelf stability over nutrition for a long time. For too long, in my opinion. Other studies have demonstrated similar reductions in nutritional value:
As noted in the Scientific American article Dirt Poor, you would have to eat eight oranges to get the same amount of vitamin A that your grandparents got from a single orange in their childhood. So what can we do? We can start by not encouraging poor agricultural practices. Do a little homework. What sort of reputation does the company growing your lettuce actually have? If they treat their workers poorly, they probably treat the soil even worse. When shopping for produce, buy organic. Organic farmers meet stringent assessments that ensure they are not using or exposing our food to potentially harmful chemicals. Even if those chemicals can’t hurt us, they do harm the beneficial insects and microorganisms necessary for healthy soil. And don’t buy more than you need. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, Americans waste an average of one pound of food each day, or 30-40% of the total food supply. This waste costs a family of four $2,275 each year. Finally, grow what you can at home using integrated pest management and other least damaging methods. When planning your garden, keep the following tips in mind:
As I said earlier, we still do not fully understand the complexities of soil health. We can help improve soil health by reducing our interference and boosting biodiversity in our landscapes. Remember that soil needs time to rest. It needs to go through natural cycles. We need to give our garden patches permission to go fallow for a season. It might be good for us to take a breather now and then, too. If you grow blueberries, be on the lookout for these longhorned beetles.
No, we’re not talking about Texas longhorns. Blueberry stem borers (Oberea myops) are in a family of narrow beetles with long antennae (Cerambycidae). Also known as rhododendron borers and azalea borers, they are close cousins to raspberry cane borers. Adult blueberry stem borers are slightly over one-half of an inch long (15mm), light orangish brown, with long black antennae and two black dots just behind the head, on the pronotum. Larvae can be one inch long (25mm) and yellowish. Females lay individual eggs just under the bark and then mark the area by girdling the stem above and below the egg. This damage causes the stem tip to turn brown in early summer. After hatching, larvae burrow lower into the stem, creating an increasingly larger tunnel where they will live and feed for two or three years. Larval feeding weakens the plant, causing wilting, stem damage, and branch loss. If you look closely, you may be able to see tiny holes in the stem where larvae push out light-colored frass (poop) that looks like tiny segmented pieces of sawdust. Unlike currant borers, peach twig borers, and squash vine borers, blueberry stem borer larvae frass holes are oriented upward, so the use of a wire to stab the larvae tends to be ineffective because they stay safely below those holes. Adult blueberry stem borers tend to feed on the underside of leaves, especially on the midvein, causing calluses and leaf curling. While that feeding damage is minimal, you can use it as a tool to monitor your plants. Protected inside your blueberry plants, blueberry stem borer larvae are not affected by insecticides. While you can spray for adults, this is generally not worth the effort. The best control tool is your pruners. Pruning your blueberry bushes to keep them free of old, damaged, or rubbing stems is your best defense against blueberry stem borers.  Tuber flea beetle damage (Whitney Cranshaw, CSU, Bugwood.org) CC BY 3.0 Tuber flea beetles are native to North America, but you will probably never see one. These dull reddish-black insects are only 7/100 of an inch long (2mm), but the damage they cause is much larger. And their range is expanding into South and Central America. Other plants vulnerable to tuber flea beetle feeding include eggplant, groundcherries, and tomatoes. Tuber flea beetles (Epitrix tuberis) are ranked as the Number One potato pest among their cousins:
Tuber flea beetles and their cousins are difficult to tell apart, so we will lump them together for the sake of discussion. Collectively, they are members of a group known as leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae).  Epitrix, leaf beetle (xpda) CC BY-SA 4.0 Like other flea beetles, tuber flea beetles damage fruit, leaves, roots, and tubers. Adults crawl, fly, and jump from plant to plant to eat the leaves and burrow into the soil to lay eggs. Larvae feed on roots and tubers before pupating into adults. Adult feeding causes tiny holes in leaves, creating a shothole appearance, bare patches on tubers, and leathery areas on fruit.  Tuber flea beetle larvae feeding damage to potato skin (Whitney Cranshaw, CSU/Bugwood.org CC BY 3.0 US A three-year crop rotation goes a long way toward managing tuber flea beetles, but buying certified disease- and pest-free seed potatoes is critical. Also, it helps to keep weeds in the nightshade family away from your potato plants. You can also reduce tuber flea beetle damage by intercropping dill, marigolds, and spring onions with vulnerable crops.
I hope your potatoes never get fleas! We’ve talked about black scurf and sweet potato scurf. Today, we’re learning about silver scurf. Silver scurf may sound like the latest Marvel comic hero, unfortunately, it’s a fungal disease of potatoes. For the most part, silver scurf is a cosmetic problem, but infection can lead to tubers rotting in storage, and they don’t look as pretty. Well, pretty for a potato.  Silver scurf scabs on potato (A.J. Gevens, UW Extension) CC BY-SA 4.0 Potatoes infected with Helminthosporium solani can be shrunken, shriveled, and lighter in color. This disease causes spud dehydration and scabby bits. You may also see black spots, which are tiny fungal factories. Other conditions that result in scabby potatoes include common scab, potato scab, and powdery scab. Scabby leaves often indicate Eriophyid mite feeding or bacterial spot, and scabby apples are a warning to look before you bite, because it may be a sign of codling moth larvae feeding. Apples are also subject to apple blotch and apple scab, while cucurbits can look less than their best due to belly rot and cucurbit scab. Until 1977, Thiabendazole (TBZ) fungicide was used against silver scurf. But as is often the case, the fungi developed a resistance. Other fungicides have been tried, but cultural controls provide a more sustainable method of reducing the chance of disease. Silver scurf occurs most often when temperatures are between 59°F and 90°F (15°C and 32°C), so pretty much all summer. Tubers left in the ground too long can also increase the likelihood of silver scurf. Crop rotation and early harvest are good ways to avoid this problem. Silver scurf is not to be confused with the lovely legume, silvery pea-scurf (Pediomelum argophyllum).  Silvery pea scurf (Matt Lavin) CC BY-SA 2.0 Fusarium yellows is a disease of the cabbage family.
Closely related to Fusarium wilt, Fusarium yellows sometimes goes by that name. More commonly, it is simply called yellows. This disease is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Conglutinans fungi. It occurs most often in crops grown during warm weather. The disease is at its worst when temperatures are between 80°F and 90°F (27°C and 32°C). The pathogen generally enters damaged rootlets at transplanting time, so be gentle with those babies. Symptoms of Fusarium yellows are easy to overlook at first. Infected plants become a paler version of their healthier selves. They develop a yellowish tint, rather than vibrant green. As the disease progresses, that discoloration becomes more obvious on one side of the plant. The leaves and stems on that side start to curve. Lower leaves, midribs, and petioles eventually wilt and die. Symptoms then move to the upper portion of the plant. If you look at a cross-section of an infected leaf or stem, you can see that the sap has turned dark brown, much like black rot, which turns sap black. The other difference is that symptoms appear in the upper portions of the plant first when black rot is the culprit. Infected plants should be removed and thrown in the trash. These fungi can live in the soil for many years. The best preventive methods include crop rotation, removing plant debris at the end of the growing season, and growing your brassicas during cooler weather.  Rubus 'Thornless Youngberry', Australia (Nadiatalent) CC BY-SA 4.0 In 1905, Byrnes Young crossed “Mayes” dewberries with the “Phenomena” blackberry-raspberry hybrid, which resulted in Youngberries.
Youngberry plants Cousin to loganberries, nessberries, olallieberries, and tayberries, youngberry fruits (Rubus caesius ‘Youngberry') are slightly smaller and sweeter than blackberries. They can be dark red or deep purple to nearly black. They start ripening earlier in the season. Canes are moderately thorny, making them a nice choice as a security hedge. Thornless varieties are also available. Both varieties may have tiny prickles on new canes. As with other brambles, fruit is produced on second-year floricanes. These canes can be up to ten feet long and should be removed when fruit production ends. Plants are self-pollinating and can be grown in containers. How to grow Youngberries at home Youngberry canes should be installed in late winter to early spring. They thrive in slightly acidic, fertile clay or loamy soil and benefit from top dressings of aged manure or other compost. Like other cane fruits, they perform better when trellised or trained up a fence. Canes that touch the ground are likely to generate new plants. Be sure to provide good drainage and airflow. Like raspberries, your Youngberries may need shade in the afternoon to prevent sunburn damage. Allow for up to ten canes per plant. Plants should be spaced five to six feet apart. Youngberry plants are not drought tolerant, so regular irrigation is critical during the summer months. Youngberry pests and diseases Youngberry plants are known to be vigorous and highly disease resistant. But excess moisture and poor airflow can result in Fusarium wilt, gray mold, and Verticillium wilt. Fruit flies, spider mites, and thrips may also appear. Birds, grasshoppers, opossums, and other critters can be problematic. Netting may be necessary. You will probably never see these fruits in stores because they do not ship well, but I hope they make it to your garden. Having never given it much thought, I suppose I always imagined that cardamom grew on a shrub or tree. The reality is far more interesting. Did you know that cardamom is related to ginger and turmeric? All three are members of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae). But there are several different kinds of cardamom.  Cardamom powder and seeds (Silar) CC BY-SA 4.0 Cardamom varieties There are two main types and a handful of lesser-known culinary cardamoms. True or green cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) is used in sweet and savory dishes and is light green. It is called white cardamom when it has been bleached. Larger and darker black cardamom seeds (Amomum subulatum) are also known as brown and Nepal cardamom and are more commonly used in savory dishes. Other culinary cardamoms include the following:
All of these plants are native to tropical and subtropical Asia, which provides a strong hint about how they grow and what they look like. Don’t let the Latin names scare you off. They come in very handy when shopping for specific plant varieties. .jpg) One year old cardamom plant (Aviatorjk) CC BY-SA 4.0 Cardamom plant(s) Cardamom plants look like many other tropical plants. They have a dozen or so erect, cane-like stems with large, glossy, lance-shaped leaves. In late spring or early summer, leafless stems emerge from the crown with small yellowish-white flowers that look like orchids, with colorful veins and margins. These flowers have no scent but eventually produce small pods that contain 15 to 20 seeds.  Cardamom flower (Reji Jacob) Public Domain Grown outdoors, a cardamom plant may grow up to 15 feet tall and 10 feet wide, though most are significantly smaller. Indoor cardamom plants only reach a height of two to four feet tall.
These plants are slow starters. They may only be one foot tall after two years. In the third year, they may be twice that tall. And that’s when seed production begins. How to grow cardamom Cardamom can be grown from seeds or thick, knobby rhizomes. These plants prefer loose, nutrient-rich, slightly acidic soil (5.1-6.1 pH), partial to full shade, and relatively high humidity (think lower canopy of a jungle), which makes them ideal house plants, especially in the bathroom. They perform well in containers (preferably 14 inches tall and wide or bigger). Cardamom does not take kindly to being transplanted, so plan accordingly. You can grow cardamom outside in USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 10-12. If you can plant it in a rain garden, all the better! Seeds should be planted 1/8 inch deep. They take a month or so to germinate. Some people recommend soaking seeds ahead of time. Personally, I worry about damping off and other fungal diseases. You do need to keep the soil moist and provide good drainage. Areas where cardamom grows naturally receive 150 inches of rain each. You want to keep your cardamom plant’s environment stable at or above 72°F/22°C. They don’t like changes, extremes, or direct sunlight. Feed your cardamom plant high-phosphorous fertilizer twice a month during the growing season. Top dressing with aged compost will help keep your cardamom happy and healthy. If growing cardamom indoors, know that flowering and seed production are less likely. If flowers do appear, you probably only have one day to hand-pollinate. It’s actually quite simple. Use a small, preferably natural bristle paintbrush and touch the male anther to collect microscopic pollen grains, then touch the female stigmas. The more you do this, the more likely pollination will occur. If successful, the flower will fall off, and the fruit (ovary) will swell. Harvest the pods when they begin to split. They should come away easily. If they don’t, give them another day or two. Cardamom pests and diseases Cardamom is a relatively trouble-free plant. However, aphids may infect plants with cardamom mosaic, and thrips feeding can be a problem. Cardamom plants are productive for eight or nine years, on average. Your experience may vary. Did you know that green cardamom is the third most expensive spice by weight, following saffron and vanilla? I didn’t either. Luckily, it only takes a little for that warm, exotic flavor. And if you grow your own, it's free. Have you ever slept on your arm wrong, and it went numb? Or had a nerve block? Dead arm disease is not about that experience. Gardeners used to think dead arm was a single disease with two sets of symptoms. Now we know better. Grape dead arm describes what happens when your vines are infected with Eutypa dieback and Phomopsis cane and leaf spot at the same time. Phomopsis cane and leaf spot Phomopsis cane and leaf spot provides the first symptoms of grape dead arm. Caused by the fungus Phomopsis viticola, dead arm starts out as tiny red spots on new shoots. These spots merge and turn black, causing the stem to die. Then brown and yellow spots appear on the leaves, and fruit rot begins. And Eutypa dieback
Eutypa dieback Eutypa dieback is caused by the fungus Eutypa lata. Fungi stay hidden under the bark for up to three years before symptoms become obvious. Areas of bark may look flattened. If you peel the bark back, there’s no mistaking the dark, V-shaped lesions hidden inside. These lesions often cause stunted shoots and cupped, yellow leaves that stay attached to the tree in a behavior known as flagging. You may also see a gummy ooze.
Dead arm management
Once these fungal diseases appear, careful pruning is needed to prevent them from spreading. Infected limbs should be cut at least 12 inches below any noticeable infection, and cutters should be dipped in a household cleaner between each cut to prevent the spread of disease. Infected plant material should be thrown in the trash and not composted. Fixed copper sprays or fungicides may also be needed. How to prevent dead arm Moisture is nearly always a contributing factor to fungal diseases. Make sure your sprinklers are not hitting vines or tree trunks. Pruning for good air flow will help prevent these and many other diseases. Plants susceptible to Eutypa dieback should be pruned in summer, rather than during dormancy. This allows wounds to dry and heal before fungi can enter. Contrary to popular opinion, do not use sealants on your vines or trees after pruning. Sealants seal moisture in, creating a protected environment for fungi to grow unseen until it’s too late. Let a callus form naturally instead. Unlike the familiar cucumber of salad and picnic fame, sweet cucumbers taste like a cross between honeydew and cucumber. But they aren’t melons or cucumbers. They are members of the nightshade family, along with eggplant, groundcherries, peppers, and tomatoes!  Sweet cucumber plant (I, Michael w) CC BY 2.5 Before we learn about the growing particulars of this new plant, let’s see why we would want it in our landscape. Also known as melon pear, pepino melon, or pepino dulce, fleshy sweet cucumbers (Solanum muricatum) give us the best of both worlds, melons and cucumbers. Like other nightshade plants, they are sturdy and can produce for several years. However, commercial growers tend to treat them as annuals. Because sweet cucumbers are sensitive to handling and long-term storage, we are unlikely to see them in stores any time soon. That’s why you might want to grow them at home. Let’s find out how.  Interior of sweet cucumber (Eglekuc) CC BY-SA 3.0 Native to South America, sweet cucumbers thrive in USDA Hardiness Zones 8–11. You can also grow them in a container and move them to a protected location in winter. They can tolerate some frost but produce the largest harvests when grown in a greenhouse. Short periods of temperatures as low as 28°F or as high as 100°F can be tolerated, but milder temperatures are preferred. Sweet cucumber plants can be grown from seed, but cuttings are faster and easier. Sweet pepper cuttings grow roots quickly and do not need auxins or other plant hormones to get started. Mature plants can grow three feet tall and wide. Flowers and immature fruits are white with purple stripes. As the fruit matures, the white tends to turn yellow or gold. Sweet cucumbers prefer dry environments but need regular irrigation to keep up with their fast growth rate. Feeding rates will depend on your latest lab-based soil test results and local conditions. Most sweet cucumbers produce fruit in 4 to 6 months. Naturally upright, these plants benefit from tomato cages or other supports to help keep fruit off the ground, though this is not always needed. They frequently enjoy the extra heat provided by a south-facing wall or fence. Pruning is not required. The soil should never be soggy. Sweet cucumbers are self-pollinating but will produce more fruit if other plants are nearby. Fruits are picked after they are fully ripe. Sweet cucumber plants are subject to many of the same pests and diseases as other nightshade family members. Common pests include aphids, Colorado potato beetles, cutworms, flea beetles, fruit flies, hornworms, leaf miners, spider mites, and whiteflies. They are also susceptible to anthracnose, bacterial spot, pepino mosaic, tobacco mosaic, and blights caused by Alternaria spp. and Phytophthora spp. .jpg) Sweet cucumber flower (Philipp Weigell) CC BY 3.0 Do you have a warm, sunny spot in your landscape? Sweet cucumbers might be a great addition to your summer menu.
If you love raspberries but don’t want the seeds, loganberries may be the answer. Loganberries (Rubus × loganobaccus) are an accidental hybrid of raspberries and blackberries.  Loganberries are bigger than raspberries (Publicdomainpictures.net) Now, how can a hybrid be accidental?
It ends up that, back in 1881, James Harvey Logan decided to create a better blackberry. He crossed a couple of local varieties and waited to see what would happen. Then, some nearby raspberries got into the act when Logan planted the offspring of his first experiment. This additional genetic information created not one but two new cultivars: the ‘Mammoth’ blackberry and the loganberry. These perennial members of the Heather family look like blackberry bushes, but the fruit is dark red, more like a moody raspberry, and longer. Other raspberry-blackberry hybrids have been developed, including boysenberry, dewberry, nessberry, olallieberry, Santiam blackberry, tayberry, and youngberry. What makes these plants so popular? Most people agree that berries are delicious. But berries don’t always ship or store well, making them excellent choices for the home garden. Like other brambles, loganberries are canes. Each plant will produce an average of 10 semi-upright stems which can be trained along a fence or trellis. In their first year, these primocanes focus on leaf and root development. Flowers and fruit occur in the second year on floricanes. After a cane has produced fruit, remove it at ground level. Loganberry plants protect themselves with soft spines that can itch, so gloves are a good idea. If you prefer a thornless version, you can always try the ‘American Thornless’ variety. Or if a natural barrier to unwanted intruders would be helpful, a loganberry wall might be a delicious option. Mature loganberries are red, but they are generally harvested while still purple. Each loganberry bush can produce up to 18 pounds of fruit annually and may live for 15 years. Loganberry plants are propagated from cane cuttings and layering. They perform best in USDA Hardiness Zones 6-10. Space your loganberry plants six feet apart. They prefer full sun, though afternoon partial shade is acceptable. Loganberry plants are rugged and tend to be more disease-resistant than many of their cousins. But they are susceptible to several fungal diseases, including anthracnose, Botrytis fruit rot, powdery mildew, raspberry leaf spot, rust, and spur blight, as well as crown gall and Phytophthora root rot. Avoid these diseases by providing good drainage and airflow. And be sure to remove mummies right away. Common loganberry pests include aphids, dryberry mites, raspberry cane maggots, raspberry beetles, crown borers, root weevils, sawflies, and slugs and snails. As tempting as it may be to sprinkle salt around your brambles to protect the fruit against slugs and snails, don’t do it. Table salt may be great on that baked potato, but it does terrible things to your soil and garden plants. Instead, monitor your plants regularly for signs of infestation and infection to be the first to enjoy those luscious big berries as soon as they are ready! If you bite into a pepper and find tiny grubs, it might be pepper weevils.  Pepper weevil on bud (Alton N. Sparks, Jr., UGA, Bugwood.org) CC BY 3.0 Pepper weevils (Anthonomus eugenii) are specialists. These beetles are not interested in other members of the nightshade family, so your eggplants and tomatoes are safe, for now. But your chili peppers, jalapeños, sweet peppers, and tomato peppers are not. Like your peppers, pepper weevils prefer hot weather. Native to Mexico, these pests have moved northward with the changing climate as far as Canada and the Netherlands. How they got across the ocean is anyone’s guess, but probably on infested fruit. Adult pepper weevils are only 1/6th of an inch long, black, brown, or gray, with bent antennae and a long, curved weevil snout. Pepper weevils eat flower and leaf buds, which can put a serious dent in your pepper harvest. Making matters worse, female pepper weevils cut holes in developing buds, lay an egg in each one, and then plug the hole with bug poop. When the egg hatches, the larva burrows its way to the center of the fruit, growing and pooping until it reaches a pupal stage. As adults, they continue feeding on the fruit on their way out and then start the cycle again. Females produce nearly 350 eggs in their very short lifetime.  Pepper weevil larva in fruit (Alton N. Sparks, Jr., UGA, Bugwood.org) CC BY 3.0 Chemical controls are ineffective since adult pepper weevils tend to stay hidden in the lower parts of the plant, especially as temperatures rise. Check flowers, fruit, and leaf whorls each morning as you wander through your garden. Unfortunately, pepper weevils have few natural enemies, so quarantine new plants and remove all infested fruit.
You can use pheromone traps to monitor for pepper weevils. Keep in mind, however, that pheromone traps attract pests. Pepper weevils overwinter in black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), so keep those away from your pepper plants. Zucchini, melons, and several other cucurbits offer the added bonus of producing edible flowers. But it's important to know which flowers are male and which will produce the fruit you planted for in the first place. If you stuff all your male zucchini flowers with cream cheese and breadcrumbs, there may not be enough pollen available to pollinate the female flowers. Unless you have self-pollinating plants, that would mean no zucchinis and no chocolate zucchini cake!  Male (left) and female (right) zucchini flower buds. In the photo above, you can see one long-stemmed flower bud on the left and one stubby flower bud on the right. The longer stemmed bud is male. Male zucchini flowers appear everywhere on the plant and usually before female flowers. They have a distinctive cup at the base, and a knobby, pollen-coated stamen inside the flower. That pollen can be collected for later use, just make sure it doesn't get moldy. The female bud stem is shorter and thicker, and it does not have the cup-shaped base. Instead, what looks like a stem is a (potential) baby zucchini. Female flowers tend to stay near the middle of the plant, though not always. After the flowers open, pollen from the male flower has to come into contact with the female flower's pistil. This usually occurs thanks to pollinators, such as honeybees. My indoor windowsill garden requires hand-pollination, which simply means touching flowers repeatedly with a natural bristle paint brush every day that the female flowers are open. Indoor gardening is a lot easier than many people think.
Over the next few weeks, I will be adding photos to show you how the fruit develops.
Be sure to check back for updates! People have been using kelp and other seaweeds as a fertilizer for thousands of years. Historically, it was collected, dried, and added to the soil by hand. Today’s kelp and seaweed market is a very different critter. You can find seaweed extract, kelp meal, and everything in between. Frequently touted as disease suppressants, fertilizers, and stress reducers for plants, kelp and other seaweeds are also said to contain helpful plant hormones and other biostimulants, but are those claims true? First, let’s learn a little about these underwater plants.  Kelp forest (goodfreephotos.com) Kelp and other seaweeds
There are thousands of different seaweeds, and they are all marine algae. Some seaweeds are microscopic, while others, such as kelp, can create towering underwater forests. If you have ever been to a Southern California beach, you know that kelp is slick and abundant. The leaves look like reddish brown lasagna noodles. And as it grows, kelp absorbs pollution. One common pollutant, nitrogen, happens to be the number one nutrient needed by your garden plants. That should make kelp and other seaweeds excellent sources of plant nutrition. But are they? Kelp claims Many claims have been made about the benefits of seaweed in the garden, including the following:
In one study, fields treated with kelp fertilizer were found to have slightly higher levels of sulfur. Sulfur has been shown to improve the flavor and quality of crops like tomatoes. The problem with all of these claims is that they are based on laboratory studies and some faulty logic. Just because something works under highly control lab conditions does not mean it will work in your yard, or that sellers are providing you with what they advertise. Quality controls matter Before jumping on the seaweed bandwagon, you should know that there can be significant variability on nutrient content. There is no standardization of contents or effectiveness at this time. Also, kelp holds onto other pollutants besides nitrogen. It can contain undesirable heavy metals along with that NPK. While it is unlikely to occur in your packaged seaweed fertilizer, you should know that rotting seaweed produces a lot of hydrogen sulfide, which is a highly toxic gas that causes diarrhea and vomiting. And we do not yet know how much or which type of seaweed actually benefits our plants. More research is needed. Bottom line, most seaweed extracts are very diluted forms of fertilizer. And they are expensive. Until quality controls are in place, you can get better results with a lab-based soil test and regular fertilizer treatments. Most of us grew up hearing frogs are smooth-skinned, and toads are dry and warty. It ends up that that distinction has no basis in science. They are all frogs. And we know them when we see them.  American Toad (Wikimedia) Public Domain Long legs, big bellies, protruding eyes, and long, sticky tongues all help make these garden helpers voracious predators. Frogs commonly eat flies, moths, slugs, snails, and worms. This makes frogs a great addition to your garden. All they need is moisture and a chemical-free environment. Sadly, those conditions are in short supply these days. Frogs have been around for about 250 million years. They lay eggs in water. Those eggs hatch into tadpoles. Tadpoles swim around, eating algae and other plant matter until they lose their tails, then they move on land.  Frog life cycle (LadyofHats) Public Domain Frogs make up nearly 90% of the world’s amphibians, but they are in trouble. According to Wikipedia, one-third of all frog species are threatened with extinction. More than 120 species have gone extinct since the 1980s, and genetic mutations are increasing. Considering frogs are significant players in the world’s food web, we can all do them a favor by making room for them in our gardens. Adding a frog pond might be more than some gardeners can manage. But you can probably create a moist, private area with protective branches and plants to help native frogs hide from garter snakes, pets, and human activities. Consider a bird bath or other shallow water container at ground level. If you come across a frog in your garden, it is best to leave it alone. Most amphibians carry Salmonella bacteria and should not be handled.  Common toad exhibiting a defensive posture (Łukasz Olszewski ImreKiss) CC BY 3.0 As a gardener, I love getting my hands dirty. I love the feel and smell of rich, damp soil. I love its earthiness. It makes me feel connected. As a result, I never gave hydroponics a chance. I was wrong.  Hydroponic lettuce (Marsraw) Pixabay Hydroponics refers to growing plants in water that has been infused with nutrients. Plants grown hydroponically may have their root systems supported with slotted cups or other mechanical means, or they held in place with gravel, perlite, or other inert material. So, how did I get started with hydroponics? In my high-rise apartment, we have a Free Bench. A Free Bench is any space where neighbors can put things they no longer want, and others can freely take whatever they like. It’s a great way to reduce waste and clutter at the same time. If your apartment or neighborhood doesn’t have a Free Bench, I urge you to create one. I recently saw a brand-new AeroGarden hydroponic herb garden, complete with seeds and plant food, on our Free Bench. I had to grab it and give it a try. The concept behind hydroponics is simple. A bowl-shaped base contains water and a water pump. The water pump circulates the water periodically, preventing swamp-like conditions. This circulation aerates the water.  My hydroponic garden on January 20th The bowl has a flat lid with holes. Cone-shaped containers of inert material contain seeds. These cones fit nicely into the holes. An arm at the back of the bowl supports a grow light. This arm can be raised or lowered, depending on the height of the plants. What’s so great about hydroponics? The best thing about hydroponics is that there is practically zero water waste. The container is covered, reducing evaporation, and the roots pull up as much water as they need. No more and no less. According to Wikipedia, it takes 57 gallons of water to grow 2.2 pounds of tomatoes in soil. Growing the same tomatoes hydroponically takes 18 gallons, and growing them aeroponically only uses 5.3 gallons. We will discuss that method another day. So, you can’t overwater. Overwatering is probably the most common cause of death for indoor plants. The worst thing you can do for your hydroponics irrigation-wise is to forget to top off the water as it gets used by the plants. Luckily, my unit has a warning light that tells me it’s time to add water. It also has a light that tells me when to feed my water-bound plants. The kit came with its own plant food. When that is used up, I will probably start using fish emulsion. My hydroponic plants get all the light they need from LEDs built into the unit.  My hydroponic plants are putting out serious roots by February 1st! To create your own hydroponic planter with a yogurt container, use these steps:
*Do not fill the container to the top. The roots need some air exposure, or they will drown and die. It won’t be as convenient as the automated version since you must monitor it more closely. But you can grow a surprising amount of food this way. Commercial hydroponic facilities currently grow cucumbers, lettuce, peppers, spinach, and strawberries, along with all those tomatoes. As water supplies dwindle and weather patterns continue to change, hydroponic gardening may very well be the agriculture of the future.  One week later, I can harvest some dill, and the basil and mint are nearly ready for their first pinching! It’s a great way to have fresh herbs, even if you live in an apartment. And the space above the lights makes the perfect spot for drying those herbs!  UPDATE (March 7, 2025): The rate at which my hydroponic herbs are growing continues to impress me. And the basil leaves are the biggest I've ever seen (and delicious)!
The downside of hydroponics
As is usually the case with things that seem ideal on the surface, there is a downside to hydroponics. That downside is rot. Unless you regularly remove everything and clean every aspect of your hydroponic garden, things will start to rot. I thought I could get away with avoiding that task, but I was wrong. Every time I tried starting new seeds, they developed fungal fuzz and died. Even my healthy established basil plants started showing signs of disease: curled leaves, odd new growths, and reduced production. I prefer no-fuss, low-maintenance gardening, so I emptied and cleaned out my AeroGarden and put it back on the Free Bench in my building for someone else. Hydroponics may be exactly what you’re looking for. But it’s not for me. Juniper pollen levels are rising in the Seattle area right now. It makes me wonder when the best time would be to collect some juniper berries. I needed more information. In my mind, I thought I knew what juniper meant, but I wasn’t entirely sure.  Juniper cones and leaves (MPF) CC BY 2.5 My lack of clarity was partly due to how juniper leaves change from adolescence to adulthood. Also, it ends up that the word juniper does not refer to a single tree. Instead, juniper refers to an entire group of conifers, or evergreens, in the Juniperus genus. The juniper family There are more than 50 different junipers. They are found everywhere, from the African plains to the Himalayas. They can be low, spreading shrubs, tall, skinny columns, or the classic Christmas tree shape. Some junipers grow 130 feet tall, but most are significantly smaller. This group is part of the cypress family, cousins to sequoia and cedar trees.
Some junipers are monoecious (distinctly male or female), and others are dioecious (both male and female). Apparently, some types of juniper pollen can be a serious problem. Male monoecious juniper pollen is considered the worst. Then again, female monoecious juniper pollen ranks the lowest. Juniper cones Junipers do not produce fruit or flowers, but they do make seeds. Those seeds are protected inside cones. That’s because they are gymnosperms. Unlike familiar pinecones, juniper cones are the “berries” in question.  Male (brown) juniper cones and female (greenish yellow) female seed cones Pixnio Public Domain Botanically, those berries are female seed cones called galbuli. Instead of being berries, these structures have tiny, fleshy scales that fuse together. Galbuli take 6 to 18 months to mature after being pollinated. And I will still call them berries, even though I know they’re not. Male juniper cones look a little more familiar but are softer than pine cones. The seeds inside the galbuli take 1 to 3 years to mature. Most junipers bloom in autumn and pollinate from early winter through late spring.
 Juvenile juniper leaves (left), adult leaves, and immature male cones (right) GFDL CC BY-SA 3.0 So, why would someone want juniper berries?
I know they are used to making gin, which is beyond me. They are also used when making game and other meat dishes, sauerbraten, sauerkraut, and an intriguing juniper berry spiced chocolate hazelnut cookie recipe that I must try. And how do I know when they are ready to harvest? Juniper berries are ready to be picked when they reach their full color. Most often, they are blue, but can also be orange or reddish-brown. The trick is finding junipers that have not been sprayed with chemicals or are too close to road traffic, where they will absorb unwanted fumes. Growing your own is the best way to protect yourself. How to grow juniper Junipers can be grown from seed, but it’s a slow process that requires stratification and patience. It’s easier to start with a certified pest- and disease-free seedling. As always, put your juniper into quarantine while you figure out the best place to put it. Most junipers need at least 6 hours of direct sunlight each day. Each species is unique, so read the label. Dig a hole that is wide enough to allow the roots to spread out. Be sure that the trunk’s flare is above the soil level. Improper planting depth is one of the most common reasons trees fail to thrive. Cover the roots with soil and resist the temptation to tamp it down. This damages valuable root hairs. Instead, mud in your young juniper with water. This eliminates drying air pockets and provides valuable moisture. Junipers are drought-tolerant once established. Avoid overwatering or fungal disease will become problematic. Juniper pests and diseases Junipers are susceptible to root rots and cedar-apple rust, so keep them away from your apple trees. Several moth and butterfly caterpillars feed on juniper, including juniper carpet, juniper pug, pine beauty, and tortrix moths. Junipers come in so many shapes and sizes that there’s bound to be one that would be lovely in your landscape. Mistletoe may bring lovers together for a holiday kiss, but you don’t want these parasitic plants in your landscape.  Vintage mistletoe illustration (rawpixel) Public Domain Types of mistletoe There are several types of mistletoe. Some have red berries, and some have white, but they are all members of the Santalales order. You can determine your variety by counting the berries in each cluster. European mistletoe berries occur in clusters of two to six, while you will find 10 or more berries in clusters of North American mistletoe. How mistletoe grows Mistletoe seeds land on branches and twigs, often via bird droppings. These seeds (drupes) send early roots into the bark to tap a significant food source. Since penetrating the bark can take up to a year, these plants use photosynthesis at first. As such, they are hemiparasites. Once they attach themselves to a host plant, most photosynthesis stops. Eventually, the mistletoe plant takes on a witches’ broom growth.
Like dodder, mistletoe plants use a specialized structure (haustorium) to attach themselves to various trees and shrubs, including apple and cocoa trees. They then suck water and nutrients from host plants. Heavy infestations can kill the host.  Mistletoe can devastate a tree (Antranias) Pixabay Mistletoe management
If mistletoe appears in your landscape, early removal of affected limbs can save the host plant. Traditionally used to treat arthritis, epilepsy, infertility, and countless other maladies, we now know that mistletoe berries are toxic and should never be eaten. Quince is a close cousin to apples and pears and the fruit looks like a cross between the two. Also known as common quince (as opposed to flowering quince), it has a texture like Asian pears. It can be eaten raw and is commonly used to make jams and jellies. You will rarely see them in stores because they do not ship or store well. In ancient Rome, quince (Cydonia oblonga) was stored in jugs of honey and diluted wine.  Ripe yellow quince (Marco Verch) CC BY 2.0 Quince trees Quince trees have a shrub-like growth that can get messy. They can grow up to 20 feet tall and 15 feet wide, but dwarf varieties are significantly smaller. You can prune them into a single trunk tree form or let them grow naturally. These are very low-maintenance trees that produce fruit for many years. The large fruits are tart and firm, like an Asian pear, and can weigh more than two pounds. They ripen in late autumn and are best left on the tree until fully ripe.  Ripening quince in a tree (Shuhrataxmedov) CC BY-SA 3.0 Quince trees are deciduous, so they don’t have much to offer in winter, but they do need chilling hours to produce fruit in spring. If you grow quince in a container, you can easily move it to a secluded outdoor corner of the yard if the container has wheels. These trees produce downy gray twigs and lovely pink or white blossoms in spring.  Quince blossom (Spring's Flowers) Public Domain How to grow quince
These plants prefer hot, sunny summers and slightly acidic soil. They can be grown in USDA Hardiness Zones 5-9. They are not frost tolerant but can withstand temperatures as low as -15°F. Your quince will benefit from a little wind protection, too. You can grow quince in your yard or in a container. But they generally do not grow true to seed, so you are better off investing in certified pest- and disease-free bare root stock. You may also use cuttings or layering, if you know someone who has a healthy quince tree. While quince is self-pollinating, they are more productive when more than one tree is present to provide cross-pollination. Quince varieties There are several varieties of quince to choose from. The following are a few of the more favorites:
Quince pests and diseases Aphids, codling moths, mealybugs, leafrollers, and scale insects are common quince pests. Fungal diseases, particularly cedar-quince rust and quince leaf blight can also cause problems. You can reduce the likelihood of rust by keeping your quince away from juniper and other conifers. People have been growing quince for nearly 7,000 years. If Neolithic farmers could do it, so can you. I was inspired to learn and write about safflower after watching Hayao Miyazaki’s Only Yesterday. In this beautiful, well-told story, a young girl decides to spend her summer helping distant relatives harvest safflowers. The lovely blooms (beni) were dried, mashed, and dried again to create rouge and lipstick.  Safflower buds and blooms (Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org) CC BY 3.0 US People have been growing safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) for over 4,500 years. It is one of our oldest crops, first cultivated in Mesopotamia, primarily for its oily seeds. Safflower description Safflower is a thistle-like plant that grows one to five feet tall from a basal leaf rosette. A central stem emerges, and several lateral branches support abundant, colorful blooms. Those blooms may be orange, red, yellow, and occasionally cream or white. The dried petals are commonly used as an inexpensive substitute for saffron. Each plant may produce anywhere from 3 to 50 blooms, depending on the variety and how it is managed. Each flower is approximately one inch in diameter and produces 15–50 seeds. Some varieties grow as many as 100 seeds. Those seeds are achenes. [Achenes are what you see at the end of each “helicopter” on a dandelion seed head.] Leaves are narrow and serrated and run down the stem. Upper leaves have a spine at the tip, so you may want to wear gloves when working with safflower. How safflower grows Safflower is native to arid regions that receive seasonal rain. These herbaceous annuals thrive in temperatures ranging from 82–95°F. They are very drought-tolerant plants, making them an excellent choice for adding color to your landscape without increasing the need for irrigation. They use a deep taproot that may be six feet long or longer to find water for themselves for most of the year. Those tap roots improve soil health and can help reduce soil compaction. There are summer and winter varieties of safflower. Summer varieties require 120 growing days, while winter varieties need 200 days. How to grow safflower Safflower seeds are planted one inch deep. In the wild, safflower seeds germinate during late winter. Seedlings can tolerate temperatures as low as 19°F but planted when temperatures reach 40°F. Keep weeds away from your young safflower plants, as they are not competitive. Safflower grows best in well-drained soil with a pH of 5–8 and needs a fair amount of nitrogen and phosphorus to produce flowers. Check your soil test results before adding anything because too much fertilizer can be worse than not enough.
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Welcome!You can grow a surprising amount of food in your own yard. Ask me how! To help The Daily Garden grow, you may see affiliate ads sprouting up in various places.
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