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Zucchini, melons, and several other cucurbits offer the added bonus of producing edible flowers. But it's important to know which flowers are male and which will produce the fruit you planted for in the first place. If you stuff all your male zucchini flowers with cream cheese and breadcrumbs, there may not be enough pollen available to pollinate the female flowers. Unless you have self-pollinating plants, that would mean no zucchinis and no chocolate zucchini cake!  Male (left) and female (right) zucchini flower buds. In the photo above, you can see one long-stemmed flower bud on the left and one stubby flower bud on the right. The longer stemmed bud is male. Male zucchini flowers appear everywhere on the plant and usually before female flowers. They have a distinctive cup at the base, and a knobby, pollen-coated stamen inside the flower. That pollen can be collected for later use, just make sure it doesn't get moldy. The female bud stem is shorter and thicker, and it does not have the cup-shaped base. Instead, what looks like a stem is a (potential) baby zucchini. Female flowers tend to stay near the middle of the plant, though not always. After the flowers open, pollen from the male flower has to come into contact with the female flower's pistil. This usually occurs thanks to pollinators, such as honeybees. My indoor windowsill garden requires hand-pollination, which simply means touching flowers repeatedly with a natural bristle paint brush every day that the female flowers are open. Indoor gardening is a lot easier than many people think.
Over the next few weeks, I will be adding photos to show you how the fruit develops.
Be sure to check back for updates! People have been using kelp and other seaweeds as a fertilizer for thousands of years. Historically, it was collected, dried, and added to the soil by hand. Today’s kelp and seaweed market is a very different critter. You can find seaweed extract, kelp meal, and everything in between. Frequently touted as disease suppressants, fertilizers, and stress reducers for plants, kelp and other seaweeds are also said to contain helpful plant hormones and other biostimulants, but are those claims true? First, let’s learn a little about these underwater plants.  Kelp forest (goodfreephotos.com) Kelp and other seaweeds
There are thousands of different seaweeds, and they are all marine algae. Some seaweeds are microscopic, while others, such as kelp, can create towering underwater forests. If you have ever been to a Southern California beach, you know that kelp is slick and abundant. The leaves look like reddish brown lasagna noodles. And as it grows, kelp absorbs pollution. One common pollutant, nitrogen, happens to be the number one nutrient needed by your garden plants. That should make kelp and other seaweeds excellent sources of plant nutrition. But are they? Kelp claims Many claims have been made about the benefits of seaweed in the garden, including the following:
In one study, fields treated with kelp fertilizer were found to have slightly higher levels of sulfur. Sulfur has been shown to improve the flavor and quality of crops like tomatoes. The problem with all of these claims is that they are based on laboratory studies and some faulty logic. Just because something works under highly control lab conditions does not mean it will work in your yard, or that sellers are providing you with what they advertise. Quality controls matter Before jumping on the seaweed bandwagon, you should know that there can be significant variability on nutrient content. There is no standardization of contents or effectiveness at this time. Also, kelp holds onto other pollutants besides nitrogen. It can contain undesirable heavy metals along with that NPK. While it is unlikely to occur in your packaged seaweed fertilizer, you should know that rotting seaweed produces a lot of hydrogen sulfide, which is a highly toxic gas that causes diarrhea and vomiting. And we do not yet know how much or which type of seaweed actually benefits our plants. More research is needed. Bottom line, most seaweed extracts are very diluted forms of fertilizer. And they are expensive. Until quality controls are in place, you can get better results with a lab-based soil test and regular fertilizer treatments. Most of us grew up hearing frogs are smooth-skinned, and toads are dry and warty. It ends up that that distinction has no basis in science. They are all frogs. And we know them when we see them.  American Toad (Wikimedia) Public Domain Long legs, big bellies, protruding eyes, and long, sticky tongues all help make these garden helpers voracious predators. Frogs commonly eat flies, moths, slugs, snails, and worms. This makes frogs a great addition to your garden. All they need is moisture and a chemical-free environment. Sadly, those conditions are in short supply these days. Frogs have been around for about 250 million years. They lay eggs in water. Those eggs hatch into tadpoles. Tadpoles swim around, eating algae and other plant matter until they lose their tails, then they move on land.  Frog life cycle (LadyofHats) Public Domain Frogs make up nearly 90% of the world’s amphibians, but they are in trouble. According to Wikipedia, one-third of all frog species are threatened with extinction. More than 120 species have gone extinct since the 1980s, and genetic mutations are increasing. Considering frogs are significant players in the world’s food web, we can all do them a favor by making room for them in our gardens. Adding a frog pond might be more than some gardeners can manage. But you can probably create a moist, private area with protective branches and plants to help native frogs hide from garter snakes, pets, and human activities. Consider a bird bath or other shallow water container at ground level. If you come across a frog in your garden, it is best to leave it alone. Most amphibians carry Salmonella bacteria and should not be handled.  Common toad exhibiting a defensive posture (Łukasz Olszewski ImreKiss) CC BY 3.0 As a gardener, I love getting my hands dirty. I love the feel and smell of rich, damp soil. I love its earthiness. It makes me feel connected. As a result, I never gave hydroponics a chance. I was wrong.  Hydroponic lettuce (Marsraw) Pixabay Hydroponics refers to growing plants in water that has been infused with nutrients. Plants grown hydroponically may have their root systems supported with slotted cups or other mechanical means, or they held in place with gravel, perlite, or other inert material. So, how did I get started with hydroponics? In my high-rise apartment, we have a Free Bench. A Free Bench is any space where neighbors can put things they no longer want, and others can freely take whatever they like. It’s a great way to reduce waste and clutter at the same time. If your apartment or neighborhood doesn’t have a Free Bench, I urge you to create one. I recently saw a brand-new AeroGarden hydroponic herb garden, complete with seeds and plant food, on our Free Bench. I had to grab it and give it a try. The concept behind hydroponics is simple. A bowl-shaped base contains water and a water pump. The water pump circulates the water periodically, preventing swamp-like conditions. This circulation aerates the water.  My hydroponic garden on January 20th The bowl has a flat lid with holes. Cone-shaped containers of inert material contain seeds. These cones fit nicely into the holes. An arm at the back of the bowl supports a grow light. This arm can be raised or lowered, depending on the height of the plants. What’s so great about hydroponics? The best thing about hydroponics is that there is practically zero water waste. The container is covered, reducing evaporation, and the roots pull up as much water as they need. No more and no less. According to Wikipedia, it takes 57 gallons of water to grow 2.2 pounds of tomatoes in soil. Growing the same tomatoes hydroponically takes 18 gallons, and growing them aeroponically only uses 5.3 gallons. We will discuss that method another day. So, you can’t overwater. Overwatering is probably the most common cause of death for indoor plants. The worst thing you can do for your hydroponics irrigation-wise is to forget to top off the water as it gets used by the plants. Luckily, my unit has a warning light that tells me it’s time to add water. It also has a light that tells me when to feed my water-bound plants. The kit came with its own plant food. When that is used up, I will probably start using fish emulsion. My hydroponic plants get all the light they need from LEDs built into the unit.  My hydroponic plants are putting out serious roots by February 1st! To create your own hydroponic planter with a yogurt container, use these steps:
*Do not fill the container to the top. The roots need some air exposure, or they will drown and die. It won’t be as convenient as the automated version since you must monitor it more closely. But you can grow a surprising amount of food this way. Commercial hydroponic facilities currently grow cucumbers, lettuce, peppers, spinach, and strawberries, along with all those tomatoes. As water supplies dwindle and weather patterns continue to change, hydroponic gardening may very well be the agriculture of the future.  One week later, I can harvest some dill, and the basil and mint are nearly ready for their first pinching! It’s a great way to have fresh herbs, even if you live in an apartment. And the space above the lights makes the perfect spot for drying those herbs!  UPDATE (March 7, 2025): The rate at which my hydroponic herbs are growing continues to impress me. And the basil leaves are the biggest I've ever seen (and delicious)!
Juniper pollen levels are rising in the Seattle area right now. It makes me wonder when the best time would be to collect some juniper berries. I needed more information. In my mind, I thought I knew what juniper meant, but I wasn’t entirely sure.  Juniper cones and leaves (MPF) CC BY 2.5 My lack of clarity was partly due to how juniper leaves change from adolescence to adulthood. Also, it ends up that the word juniper does not refer to a single tree. Instead, juniper refers to an entire group of conifers, or evergreens, in the Juniperus genus. The juniper family There are more than 50 different junipers. They are found everywhere, from the African plains to the Himalayas. They can be low, spreading shrubs, tall, skinny columns, or the classic Christmas tree shape. Some junipers grow 130 feet tall, but most are significantly smaller. This group is part of the cypress family, cousins to sequoia and cedar trees.
Some junipers are monoecious (distinctly male or female), and others are dioecious (both male and female). Apparently, some types of juniper pollen can be a serious problem. Male monoecious juniper pollen is considered the worst. Then again, female monoecious juniper pollen ranks the lowest. Juniper cones Junipers do not produce fruit or flowers, but they do make seeds. Those seeds are protected inside cones. That’s because they are gymnosperms. Unlike familiar pinecones, juniper cones are the “berries” in question.  Male (brown) juniper cones and female (greenish yellow) female seed cones Pixnio Public Domain Botanically, those berries are female seed cones called galbuli. Instead of being berries, these structures have tiny, fleshy scales that fuse together. Galbuli take 6 to 18 months to mature after being pollinated. And I will still call them berries, even though I know they’re not. Male juniper cones look a little more familiar but are softer than pine cones. The seeds inside the galbuli take 1 to 3 years to mature. Most junipers bloom in autumn and pollinate from early winter through late spring.
 Juvenile juniper leaves (left), adult leaves, and immature male cones (right) GFDL CC BY-SA 3.0 So, why would someone want juniper berries?
I know they are used to making gin, which is beyond me. They are also used when making game and other meat dishes, sauerbraten, sauerkraut, and an intriguing juniper berry spiced chocolate hazelnut cookie recipe that I must try. And how do I know when they are ready to harvest? Juniper berries are ready to be picked when they reach their full color. Most often, they are blue, but can also be orange or reddish-brown. The trick is finding junipers that have not been sprayed with chemicals or are too close to road traffic, where they will absorb unwanted fumes. Growing your own is the best way to protect yourself. How to grow juniper Junipers can be grown from seed, but it’s a slow process that requires stratification and patience. It’s easier to start with a certified pest- and disease-free seedling. As always, put your juniper into quarantine while you figure out the best place to put it. Most junipers need at least 6 hours of direct sunlight each day. Each species is unique, so read the label. Dig a hole that is wide enough to allow the roots to spread out. Be sure that the trunk’s flare is above the soil level. Improper planting depth is one of the most common reasons trees fail to thrive. Cover the roots with soil and resist the temptation to tamp it down. This damages valuable root hairs. Instead, mud in your young juniper with water. This eliminates drying air pockets and provides valuable moisture. Junipers are drought-tolerant once established. Avoid overwatering or fungal disease will become problematic. Juniper pests and diseases Junipers are susceptible to root rots and cedar-apple rust, so keep them away from your apple trees. Several moth and butterfly caterpillars feed on juniper, including juniper carpet, juniper pug, pine beauty, and tortrix moths. Junipers come in so many shapes and sizes that there’s bound to be one that would be lovely in your landscape. Mistletoe may bring lovers together for a holiday kiss, but you don’t want these parasitic plants in your landscape.  Vintage mistletoe illustration (rawpixel) Public Domain Types of mistletoe There are several types of mistletoe. Some have red berries, and some have white, but they are all members of the Santalales order. You can determine your variety by counting the berries in each cluster. European mistletoe berries occur in clusters of two to six, while you will find 10 or more berries in clusters of North American mistletoe. How mistletoe grows Mistletoe seeds land on branches and twigs, often via bird droppings. These seeds (drupes) send early roots into the bark to tap a significant food source. Since penetrating the bark can take up to a year, these plants use photosynthesis at first. As such, they are hemiparasites. Once they attach themselves to a host plant, most photosynthesis stops. Eventually, the mistletoe plant takes on a witches’ broom growth.
Like dodder, mistletoe plants use a specialized structure (haustorium) to attach themselves to various trees and shrubs, including apple and cocoa trees. They then suck water and nutrients from host plants. Heavy infestations can kill the host.  Mistletoe can devastate a tree (Antranias) Pixabay Mistletoe management
If mistletoe appears in your landscape, early removal of affected limbs can save the plant. Traditionally used to treat arthritis, epilepsy, infertility, and countless other maladies, we now know that mistletoe berries are toxic and should never be eaten. Quince is a close cousin to apples and pears and the fruit looks like a cross between the two. Also known as common quince (as opposed to flowering quince), it has a texture like Asian pears. It can be eaten raw and is commonly used to make jams and jellies. You will rarely see them in stores because they do not ship or store well. In ancient Rome, quince (Cydonia oblonga) was stored in jugs of honey and diluted wine.  Ripe yellow quince (Marco Verch) CC BY 2.0 Quince trees Quince trees have a shrub-like growth that can get messy. They can grow up to 20 feet tall and 15 feet wide, but dwarf varieties are significantly smaller. You can prune them into a single trunk tree form or let them grow naturally. These are very low-maintenance trees that produce fruit for many years. The large fruits are tart and firm, like an Asian pear, and can weigh more than two pounds. They ripen in late autumn and are best left on the tree until fully ripe.  Ripening quince in a tree (Shuhrataxmedov) CC BY-SA 3.0 Quince trees are deciduous, so they don’t have much to offer in winter, but they do need chilling hours to produce fruit in spring. If you grow quince in a container, you can easily move it to a secluded outdoor corner of the yard if the container has wheels. These trees produce downy gray twigs and lovely pink or white blossoms in spring.  Quince blossom (Spring's Flowers) Public Domain How to grow quince
These plants prefer hot, sunny summers and slightly acidic soil. They can be grown in USDA Hardiness Zones 5-9. They are not frost tolerant but can withstand temperatures as low as -15°F. Your quince will benefit from a little wind protection, too. You can grow quince in your yard or in a container. But they generally do not grow true to seed, so you are better off investing in certified pest- and disease-free bare root stock. You may also use cuttings or layering, if you know someone who has a healthy quince tree. While quince is self-pollinating, they are more productive when more than one tree is present to provide cross-pollination. Quince varieties There are several varieties of quince to choose from. The following are a few of the more favorites:
Quince pests and diseases Aphids, codling moths, mealybugs, leafrollers, and scale insects are common quince pests. Fungal diseases, particularly cedar-quince rust and quince leaf blight can also cause problems. You can reduce the likelihood of rust by keeping your quince away from juniper and other conifers. People have been growing quince for nearly 7,000 years. If Neolithic farmers could do it, so can you. I was inspired to learn and write about safflower after watching Hayao Miyazaki’s Only Yesterday. In this beautiful, well-told story, a young girl decides to spend her summer helping distant relatives harvest safflowers. The lovely blooms (beni) were dried, mashed, and dried again to create rouge and lipstick.  Safflower buds and blooms (Howard F. Schwartz, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org) CC BY 3.0 US People have been growing safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) for over 4,500 years. It is one of our oldest crops, first cultivated in Mesopotamia, primarily for its oily seeds. Safflower description Safflower is a thistle-like plant that grows one to five feet tall from a basal leaf rosette. A central stem emerges, and several lateral branches support abundant, colorful blooms. Those blooms may be orange, red, yellow, and occasionally cream or white. The dried petals are commonly used as an inexpensive substitute for saffron. Each plant may produce anywhere from 3 to 50 blooms, depending on the variety and how it is managed. Each flower is approximately one inch in diameter and produces 15–50 seeds. Some varieties grow as many as 100 seeds. Those seeds are achenes. [Achenes are what you see at the end of each “helicopter” on a dandelion seed head.] Leaves are narrow and serrated and run down the stem. Upper leaves have a spine at the tip, so you may want to wear gloves when working with safflower. How safflower grows Safflower is native to arid regions that receive seasonal rain. These herbaceous annuals thrive in temperatures ranging from 82–95°F. They are very drought-tolerant plants, making them an excellent choice for adding color to your landscape without increasing the need for irrigation. They use a deep taproot that may be six feet long or longer to find water for themselves for most of the year. Those tap roots improve soil health and can help reduce soil compaction. There are summer and winter varieties of safflower. Summer varieties require 120 growing days, while winter varieties need 200 days. How to grow safflower Safflower seeds are planted one inch deep. In the wild, safflower seeds germinate during late winter. Seedlings can tolerate temperatures as low as 19°F but planted when temperatures reach 40°F. Keep weeds away from your young safflower plants, as they are not competitive. Safflower grows best in well-drained soil with a pH of 5–8 and needs a fair amount of nitrogen and phosphorus to produce flowers. Check your soil test results before adding anything because too much fertilizer can be worse than not enough.
Money may not grow on trees, but cocoa beans do!  Delicious chocolate has been a treat for over 5,000 years. But what do we know about this cousin of okra and cotton? Let’s find out. First, when I hear the word bean, I think of legumes. In the case of cocoa beans, I would be incorrect. Like coffee beans and kola nuts, cocoa beans are the seeds of a fruit. The cocoa we enjoy as chocolate is the dried and fermented seed of the cacao or cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao). That Latin name comes from the Greek word for “food of the gods”. Cocoa tree description Evergreen cocoa trees grow 20 to 40 feet tall. The leaves are broad, 3” long, and alternate along the stems. Thousands of tiny flowers grow in clusters directly from the trunk and large branches in a behavior known as cauliflory, but mature trees may only produce 20 fruits each year. .jpg) Cocoa flowers (Vinayaraj) CC BY-SA 4.0 The fruit or pod can grow nearly a foot long and weigh up to one pound. Inside the fruit, 20 to 60 seeds are held in a white pulp. In some countries, cocoa pulp is used to make jellies and juice. But it is the seeds that give us chocolate. Cocoa seeds contain 40–50% fat. We call that fat cocoa butter. And it takes more than 500 seeds to make one pound of cocoa paste.  A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages of ripening. (Medicaster) Public Domain  Cocoa seeds inside fruit (Keith Weller, USDA) Public Domain There are three types of cocoa trees, each with distinct characteristics:
 The three traditional varieties- Forastero, Trinitario, and Criollo (Tamorian) CC BY 3.0 How cocoa trees grow
Cocoa trees are grown from budding, cuttings, grafting, or seeds. You can also buy seedlings. Native to the understory of the American tropics, cocoa trees grow best in warm, wet, somewhat shaded locations. [USDA Hardiness Zones 10-12] They cannot tolerate temperatures below 55°F for long. Cocoa trees do not produce pods until they are four or five years old. They have extensive root systems that thrive in red clay (laterite) soils with a pH of 6.5 to 7.0 and good drainage. Unlike many other fruiting trees, biting midges (Forcipomyia) pollinate cocoa flowers instead of bees and butterflies. Pests and diseases of cocoa trees Most cocoa tree pests are region-specific. In the Americas, the cocoa fruit borer (Carmenta theobromae) causes significant problems, as do rats, squirrels, and woodpeckers. Fungal diseases of cocoa trees include Ceratocystis wilt, frosty pod rot, vascular streak dieback, Verticillium wilt, and witches’ broom. The cacao swollen shoot virus can infect cocoa trees, and mistletoe can drain your trees. Habitat loss is the biggest threat to modern cocoa trees. Many current growing areas are expected to be unsuitable by 2050. If you can, you might want to plant one today! Many of us use cinnamon in baking and other dishes, but how much do we know about this fascinating spice? And did you know that much of the cinnamon found in stores isn’t really cinnamon? Read on!  Dried bark strips, bark powder and flowers of Ceylon cinnamon (Simon A. Eugster) CC BY-SA 3.0 Cinnamon has been prized for thousands of years. Initially considered fit only for gods, monarchs, and mummies, those who knew where it came from kept their sources secret to maintain their monopoly. Instead, they encouraged myths about giant cinnamon birds who collected the dried sticks from distant shores where the trees were guarded by winged serpents. Two thousand years ago, 11 ounces of cinnamon cost the equivalent of 50 months’ labor. In the Middle Ages, it was believed that cinnamon was fished up in nets from the Nile River. In any case, the delicious aroma we associate with cinnamon comes to us from the inner bark of several different trees in the Cinnamomum genus. These trees are cousins to bay and other laurels. Cinnamon trees are evergreens with oval leaves and thick bark.  Cinnamon leaves (L. Shyamal) CC BY-SA 3.0
There are four major types of cassia:
Cassia is often mixed with true cinnamon to form a counterfeit product marked falsely as cinnamon. I guess we get what we pay for. How cinnamon is managed Cinnamon trees are allowed to grow for two years before harvesting begins. They are grown on plantations in South America, Asia, China, and India. Once the trees are mature enough, they are coppiced. The following year, parts of the outer bark are scraped off to expose the inner bark. This inner bark is peeled off and sun-dried or ground into powder. Stick cinnamon can last up to five years when stored in an airtight container, but ground cinnamon should be used within six months. Or, you can try growing your own.  Cinnamon flowers (Augustus Binu) CC BY-SA 3.0 How to grow cinnamon
You can grow a cinnamon tree indoors pretty much anywhere. You’ll need to live in USDA Hardiness Zones 10-12 for one to grow well outside. These trees prefer slightly acidic soil (pH 6.2-7.2). Depending on the variety selected, your tree may grow 3 to 60 feet tall and 2 to 20 feet wide, so plan accordingly. Your cinnamon tree will need plenty of direct sunlight but can handle some afternoon shade. These trees should be watered deeply and fertilized often when establishing a root system and every spring. You can grow a cinnamon tree from a stem cutting or purchase a seedling. Cinnamon pests and diseases Cinnamon trees are vulnerable to several fungal diseases including types of Diplodia, the fungal pathogen responsible for anthracnose (Glomerella cingulate), and a form of dieback known as cinnamon fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi). Leaf miners and mealybugs are common cinnamon tree pests. In the tropics, cinnamon butterfly caterpillars and cinnamon gall mites are the primary pests. When cinnamon is cured improperly, many pests are attracted to the fragrant, vulnerable wood. Fumigation with sulfur dioxide is the most common treatment. [I have no idea how much sulfur dioxide remains on our cinnamon once it reaches the store.] Are you seeing speckled leaves? Are leaf veins turning yellow? Are your plants stunted or looking pale? It may be aster yellows, and that disease comes into the garden on aster leafhoppers.  Aster leafhopper (Whitney Cranshaw, USDA Forest Service) CC BY 3.0 Also known as six-spotted leafhoppers, aster leafhoppers (Macrosteles quadrilineatus) prefer cereals and other grasses, such as barley, corn, oats, and rye. They also feed on carrots, celery, cucumber, dill, lettuce, onions, potato, pumpkin and other squash, and radish. Once they have fed on a plant infected with aster yellows, they carry that disease to all the plants they feed on.
Aster leafhopper description Aster leafhoppers are good at hiding. Before you see them, you may notice tiny insects launching themselves away at your approach. These bugs are only one-eighth of an inch long, narrow, and a dull light green. If you can get ahold of one and take a closer look, you will see that they have six white spots on their heads, but you’ll probably need a hand lens to see that much detail. Nymphs look like pale, wingless adults. Like their parents, they prefer hiding on the underside of leaves. Aster leafhopper management Remove any plants infected with aster yellows to reduce the spread of disease. Aster leafhopper management is tricky. You can use row covers to protect your plants beforehand. You can also use insecticidal soap and horticultural oils to eradicate these pests. Just be careful with those oils in summer because they can increase the likelihood of sunburn damage. As more gardeners face rising temperatures and increasing drought, it’s good to know that some edible plants love that weather. Thanks to a comment from Nina in our discussion about xeriscapes, we are going to learn about a delicious berry called agarita.  Ripe agarita berries (Clarence A. Rechenthin @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database) Public Domain Said to taste like a cross between strawberry and raspberry, this fruit of the desert has a lot to offer home gardeners. It is also popular with songbirds, and the spiny branches provide a haven to quail and many small mammals, improving biodiversity in your landscape. Agarita description Agarita (Mahonia trifoliolata) is a member of the barberry family. Like other evergreen barberries, this shrub tends to grow 3-6 feet tall and wide, though it can grow taller under the right conditions. The gray-blue-green leaves look (and feel) similar to holly with spines on the tips. The wood and fragrant flowers are bright yellow. Honeybees love using those flowers to make high-quality honey. The fruit is a pea-sized red berry often used to make jellies, syrups, and wine. .jpg) Agarita flowers (Dave Whitinger, All Things Plants) CC BY-SA 3.0 How to grow agarita Native to coastal south Texas, Arizona, and northern Mexico, agarita grows best in open, rocky areas with well-drained clay, loam, limestone, or caliche. According to Webster, caliche is “a mineral deposit of gravel sand, and nitrates, found especially in dry areas of South America.” We’ll learn more about that another day. Agarita is grown from seed. Those seeds require 2-3 months of cold stratification to germinate so that you can plant them in summer for a spring appearance. You can also start new agarita plants with sprouts that emerge from existing plants. Your agarita can be grown in full sun or light shade. Caring for agarita Agarita needs very little water. In fact, it doesn’t need much of anything. Once established, agarita makes an excellent hedge or thicket. Like Oregon grape, these spiny shrubs make excellent defensive plants.  Agarita leaves look worse than they feel (Stan Shebs) CC BY-SA 3.0 Agarita pests and diseases
Agarita has very few problems. The roots contain alkaloids that inhibit fungi, and It even thwarts deer! Leaf spots and rusts can occur, and agarita is an intermediate host for stem rust, which can cause significant problems for barley, oats, rye, and wheat, so plan accordingly. Try growing agarita in your landscape for some refreshing summer fruit. Have you ever seen two fruits growing together from the same stem?  Twin cherries (Jiaqian AirplaneFan) CC BY 3.0 Twinning commonly occurs among stone fruits but is also seen in apples, pears, kiwifruit, coconuts, and zucchini. You may even see fruit quadrupling. But it is better to prevent fruit doubling.  Golden zucchini twinning (Jonathunder) CC BY-SA 3.0 What does twinning look like? Conjoined fruits may share a little or a lot of one side. Those shared areas may be small, leaving the two fruits primarily separate. Or, they can share the entire length of the fruit. Either way, when these fruits are separated, they rot more quickly. .JPG) Twin lychees (B.navez) CC BY-SA 4.0  Coconut twinning (Didier Descouens) CC BY-SA 4.0. What causes twinning? Twinning is the result of environmental stresses. The fertilization of a single ovary usually results in one fruit. Frost damage can injure fruit buds before we even see them. Later in the season, heat and water stress can interfere with carpel formation. Carpels are the female reproductive parts of a flower (ovary, stigma, and style). This damage can result in flowers with multiple carpels that grow into conjoined fruits. Irregular irrigation and insufficient chill hours can cause twinning, too. .jpg) Conjoined mangos (Eliran t) CC BY-SA 4.0 How can twinning be prevented?
Select fruit tree varieties suited to your USDA Hardiness Zone and microclimate. Pay special attention to the number of chill hours required to produce fruit. As always, install your trees at the proper depth since healthy trees can protect themselves in many cases. Regular spring and summer irrigation and winter protection will also help prevent twinning. Twinned fruit should be removed as part of your normal fruit thinning as these fruits are more prone to pest and disease problems. If you end up with mature twinned fruit, take a photo and eat it. New Pest Alert! Are you seeing masses of red or red and black bugs in your garden? .jpg) Mediterranean Red Bug (Katja Schulz) CC BY 2.0 First seen in the U.S. in 2009, Mediterranean red bugs, or simply red bugs, have become a problem. Easily mistaken for boxelder and milkweed bugs, red bugs are something else altogether. Mediterranean red bug description Mature Mediterranean red bugs (Scantius aegyptius) are only 1/3 of an inch long. The head, legs, and antennae are black. The body is red with a distinct hourglass-like shape and dots on either side of the back. Nymphs are red. The black markings become more pronounced after each molt. Several lookalike bugs impact our gardens differently:
Damage caused by red bugs
Scientists are still learning about which plants are vulnerable to red bugs. Because these bugs eat knotweed and malva, you may be tempted to let them slide. That can backfire in the long run if we learn that many other annual plants and their seeds are vulnerable in a year or two. These bugs are extremely prolific, and the balance of controls between pests and beneficial insects (among other things) can be very delicate and easily disrupted. I think we can agree that there has been enough of that already. If you see a red bug, try to catch it and contact your local County Extension Office.  Culantro (Mokkie) CC BY-SA 3.0 Culantro (Eryngium foetidum) is a distant relative to cilantro, but don’t let the name similarities confuse you. This herb is more pungent and bitter. But it does wonders for stimulating the appetite and adding depth of flavor to many South and Central American and East Asian dishes. Culantro is a low-growing tropical plant with saw-toothed leaves that grow in a rosette form.
When transplanting, space plants 12” apart. Unlike most herbs, culantro prefers soil that stays moist. Mulching around (but not touching) these plants can help stabilize soil moisture and reduce competition from weeds.
Culantro is relatively pest- and disease-free. Its umbrella-shaped flowers attract several beneficial insects, such as hoverflies and lacewings. The best reason for growing culantro is its delicious flavor. Who ever heard of a tomato tree? Well, it ends up that there is a small tree in the nightshade family that produces tart fruits with the texture of an extra firm tomato. It is called tamarillo.  Tomato tree (Ljuba brank) CC BY-SA 3.0 Tamarillo (Solanum betaceum) goes by many other names, including blood fruit, Dutch eggplant, and poor man’s tomato. Unlike the flavor of sun-sweetened tomatoes, these fruits taste more like what you might imagine an unripe melon crossed with a persimmon would be like. Before you give up on tamarillo, you need to know that these fruits are very flavorful. Add just a little sugar and transform the pulp into a refreshing beverage, refreshing toast topper, or delicious chutney, curry, or dessert. Tamarillo description Fast-growing tamarillo trees can reach heights of 12 to 15 feet. These perennial trees can live for 12 years. Seed-grown tamarillos feature a central trunk, while those grown from cuttings have a bushier shape. Both produce clustered fruit on lateral branches. The flowers are fragrant and self-pollinating, though production increases significantly if another tamarillo is nearby to cross-pollinate the flowers.  Tomato tree fruits (Ivar Leidus) CC BY-SA 4.0 Fruits may be red (tart) or yellow (sweeter) and contain large seeds.
How to grow tamarillo You can grow tamarillo from seeds or cuttings. Native to Central America, they prefer a warm climate and need protection from frost and cold winter temperatures. These are shallow-rooted trees that require regular irrigation. Mulch helps maintain stable soil moisture levels. Since they can hybridize with other members of the tomato family, you may want to plant them at a distance from other nightshade crops. Tamarillo pests and diseases Tamarillos are susceptible to tomato mosaic and powdery mildew. Tomato potato psyllids can be devastating, and nematodes can seriously damage young trees. Aphids and whiteflies are also common pests of tamarillo. While not what you expect from a tomato, a tomato tree might be just what your yard needs! We are not talking about the okra found in your gumbo. Chinese okra is a member of the squash and melon family. Native to South Asia, this fruit is used as a vegetable while young and as a scrubbing sponge when mature. These fruits can grow 18” long and look impressive when interspersed with red noodle bean plants!
Chinese okra description Chinese okra (Luffa acutangula) looks like a cucumber crossed with a zucchini with longitudinal ridges. Flowers are a sunny yellow and beautifully fragrant, especially in the evening. Vines are sturdy and may climb up to 12 feet, making these plants an excellent choice for a pergola, fence, or trellis.
The broad leaves look like other cucurbits. Extrafloral nectaries are commonly found and provide a haven for beneficial insects. The slightly bitter fruit and flowers are edible, and the skin is tough.  Extrafloral nectaries and ants (Brnfvr) CC BY-SA 4.0 How to grow Chinese okra
These plants can be grown in temperatures ranging from 68°F to 106°F. They need lots of sunlight but may benefit from protection from harsh afternoon sunlight that may cause sunburn. The seeds are large and easy to work with. Many people soak seeds overnight before planting. Plant seeds one-half inch deep, next to something the seedlings can climb, in soil with good drainage. Water deeply each week, allowing the soil to dry out between waterings. Chinese okra pests and diseases If it gets too cold, the leaves will darken, and water-soaked necrosis and wilting may occur. Leaf beetles and leaf miners are common pests of Chinese okra. Yellow spot may also occur. Harvest fruits while young and enjoy the way they soak up sauces. And if your Chinese okra gets too old, you can always let it dry and enjoy a luffa in your bath!
Biribá (Rollinia deliciosa) is also known as the lemon meringue pie fruit, so I am intrigued! These trees grow fast, are flood-tolerant, and love plenty of sunshine. The fruit turns yellow when ripe but doesn’t last long enough to get to grocery store shelves. If you live in a semi-tropical region, this is the one I recommend.  Biribá (申義徳博士) CC BY-SA 4.0 Cherimoya Cherimoya (Annona cherimola) fruits are heart-shaped and look like they are covered with scales. They grow fast and are mostly evergreen. But cherimoya seeds are poisonous if crushed, so don’t chew on them. Custard apple Custard apple (A. reticulata) fruits are fragrant and commonly used in juices, pudding, and eaten raw. The wood is soft and low quality, but the plants are often used as rootstock for other Annona species. Ilama Ilama (A. diversifolia) fruit comes in green and pink varieties. And those pink ones nearly look red inside. These plants are generally non-climacteric, so fruits will not ripen once picked. Soncoya Soncoya (A. purpurea) fruits look bristly and are generally not worth growing. It is fibrous and described as “of indifferent quality” (Wikipedia). I think they look pretty neat, and they can be grown in containers.  Soursop fruit (Damien Boilley) CC BY-SA 2.0 Soursop Soursop (A. muricata) trees love heat and humidity. The fruit smells similar to pineapple and tastes like a cross between apples and strawberries, though I have never had it. Some people claim that soursop cures cancer, but there are no studies to verify those claims. Sugar apple/sweetsop Sugar apple/sweetsop (A. squamosa) has a distinct custard flavor. Trees are small, semi-deciduous, and prolific. The seeds are commonly ground up and used as an insecticide.  Sweetsop fruit (Yarzaryeni) CC BY 4.0 Pests and diseases of the custard apple family
Custard apple plants are susceptible to anthracnose, black canker, diplodia rot, and leaf spot. Common pests include mealybugs and nematodes. These plants are considered invasive in many regions. So what about those risks? While most of these aromatic, tropical and semi-tropical plants share similar growth habits, low-branching, large, sometimes fuzzy, leaves, and textured, heavy fruits, they also share a big problem. The seeds and leaves of these plants contain something called annonacin. Annonacin is a potentially lethal neurotoxin that can cause brain lesions consistent with Parkinson’s disease. The leaves are commonly used in teas and herbal remedies, and regular use can cause severe diseases, including Parkinson’s and palsy, so only eat the fruit. Lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora) is a woody perennial shrub you can add to your garden for delightful teas, lemony fish and poultry dishes, puddings, custards, and syrup. You can also use it to create a fast-growing* lemon-scented hedge. *Lemon verbena grown from seed grows slowly. Plants grown from cuttings or dividing grow fast.
Is lemon verbena an effective herbal remedy or not?
There are numerous claims about the effectiveness of lemon verbena as an herbal remedy for everything from stomach upset, anxiety, and muscle repair to weight loss and joint pain. While claims like these often turn out to be untrue or exaggerated, science is beginning to support at least some of them. The National Institutes of Health published a study concluding that lemon verbena has “promising antioxidant and anti-proliferation effects.” Until we know more about how lemon verbena can improve our health, we can happily grow it at home for other reasons. How to grow lemon verbena These plants are drought-tolerant. They grow best in fertile soil with excellent drainage and full sun. Plant seeds, seedlings, or tip cuttings 12-18” apart. In USDA Hardiness Zones 8a-10b, you can grow these plants as perennials. In cooler regions, it can be grown as an annual. Common pests and diseases of lemon verbena Aphids, slugs, and snails are the most common pests of lemon verbena. Leaf miners, mealybugs, spider mites, thrips, and whiteflies may also cause problems. Yellow sticky sheets can significantly reduce populations of these pests. These plants also experience root rots, which can be avoided by allowing the soil to dry out between waterings. Other potential diseases of lemon verbena include gray mold, powdery mildew, spotted wilt, and Verticillium wilt. Again, monitor soil moisture levels and avoid overhead watering. Add this lemony fresh herb to your landscape for years of delicious flavor and showy flowers. The maple syrup on your French toast and those yummy maple syrup candies seen around the holidays are tree sap. .jpg) Sugar maple leaves (Superior National Forest) CC BY 2.0 Sugar maples (Acer saccharum) are related to soapberries and lychee. These deciduous hardwood trees create glorious fall foliage before winter sets in. As temperatures rise, trees convert the starches stored over the winter into sugary sap. That sap starts rising through the phloem to feed new growth. That’s where we step in.  Sugar maple tap and bucket (Wagner2005) CC BY 3.0 DEED Many years ago, in Stafford, Virginia, I opened a private K-12 school called Children’s Academy. We had a silver maple tree on the property, so we decided to try our hand at tapping it. Tapping trees refers to the way we get to the sap. Taps, also known as spiles or cask pegs, used to be hand-carved wooden tubes, but modern taps are metal. Taps are hammered into the tree to reach the phloem, just under the bark, where the sap flows. Maple description Most of us are familiar with hand-shaped, pointy maple leaves. These trees can get quite large, growing 80 feet tall or more. The bark is a lovely pale gray. The greenish-yellow flowers do not have petals. Instead, they grow in several panicles, clustered together, usually after 30-55 growing degree days. The fruit grows in winged pairs that most of us called ‘helicopters’ because they spin as they fall. Those fruits are called samaras, and they contain maple seeds.
Other maples Sugar and black maples (Acer nigrum) are the primary sources of maple syrup, but our silver maple did well enough. Other maples, including our silver, have lower sugar levels and produce a cloudy (but still delicious) syrup. Norway maples are quickly taking over suburban streets because of their ability to withstand air pollution and weather fleck better than sugar maples. Unfortunately, they are not good sources of sap. One way to tell which maple tree you have is to look at the sap in a leaf petiole. Sugar maple sap is clear. Norway maple sap is white. How maple trees grow Maples love cold winters and are best suited to USDA Hardiness Zones 3-5. They take 30 years to reach seed-bearing age and live 200 years or more. These trees are very shade-tolerant. They are best planted as saplings in the spring or fall in well-draining soil. They prefer slightly acidic soil but can grow in soil pH levels of 5.0—7.0. .jpg) Sugar making in Montreal, October 1852 by Cornelius Krieghoff (artist); Sarony & Major (engraver) Public Domain How to make maple syrup
Sap was traditionally boiled over an open fire for a very long time to get rid of the excess water. But it takes, on average, 40 gallons of sap to make one gallon of syrup. Collecting sap is very labor-intensive, and all that cooking uses a lot of energy, so now you know why maple syrup is so pricey. Compounding that problem is the maple tree’s sensitivity to air pollution. Maple tree decline Starting in the 1950s and culminating 40 years later, a drastic decline in Canadian sugar maples was considered a serious threat to the species (and global maple syrup supplies). Acid rain was killing all the sugar maples in Canada and the northeast US. So Canada and the US created The Canada – United States Air Quality Agreement in 1991. By 2023, the actions outlined in that agreement resulted in a significant decrease in the chemicals responsible for acid rain and sugar maples started to recover. [See what we can do when we work together?] Did you know that the samaras can be soaked, boiled, seasoned, and roasted (without the wings) for a yummy snack? I didn’t either. Now we know. Have you ever heard of galangal? I saw it used on an episode of Chopped and had to learn more. Imagine ginger crossed with horseradish, black pepper, and a little pine. To me, that sounds like a perfect addition to stir-fry. Even more intriguing, the fragrant flowers, glossy leaves, tender shoots, and cardamom-flavored berries are also edible.  Galanga rhizomes (Susan Slater) CC BY-SA 4.0 Galangal is a rhizome that looks a lot like ginger but has more of a peppery bite. It is a popular ingredient in many Asian dishes and you can grow it at home. Not only does galangal make a tasty ingredient, but it is also an attractive grass plant. Galangal is a member of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae) and a close cousin of turmeric. Before you jump on the galangal bandwagon, you need to know that four different plants go by that name:
All of them are edible, but we are only discussing the Alpinia galangals here. Lesser galangal has a more bitter pine flavor, while great galangal has a more medicinal ginger flavor. Under ideal conditions, greater galangal can grow 6 feet tall and 3 feet wide. Lesser galangal is smaller.
Plant rhizomes when the soil is warm. Cover them with 3 or 4 inches of soil. Space plants 12-18 inches apart. They will need good drainage and partial or full sun exposure. If you have scorching summers, your galangal may need protection from the afternoon sun to prevent sunburn damage. Use a one-gallon or larger container for potted galangal.
These plants need plenty of water in the early stages. Soaker hoses are an excellent tool for watering galangal. Mulching around your galangal will help the soil stay moist without becoming soggy. How you feed your galangal will depend on where it is being grown. An inexpensive lab-based soil test can tell you what you need to feed plants growing in the ground. Container-grown galangal will benefit from light monthly feedings of fish emulsion or other balanced fertilizer. Galangal pests and diseases When ginger stalks turn brown, they are dead. Cut them off and add them to the compost pile. When galangal stalks turn brown, it is often a symptom of too much or too little water. Chlorosis or dull leaves may indicate insufficient nutrients. The most common pests include aphids, root borers, grasshoppers, and spider mites. Beneficial insects and the judicious use of Bt can eliminate most of these pests. Severe infestations may require the use of spinosad. Prevent root rot and rust by avoiding overhead watering and ensuring good drainage. Harvest your galangal by digging up the entire plant, removing what you want, and replanting the rest. Instead of tamping down the soil, which damages valuable root hairs, “mud in” the replanted part. You will want to harvest before the rhizomes become tough. And be sure to save some for replanting. As a bonus, research has shown that eating galangal increases alertness, improves focus, impedes caffeine crashes, and may provide anti-inflammatory protection. And hummingbirds love galangal. How’s that for a stir-fry? Most of us grow lettuce for the leaves, but celtuce is a variety of lettuce that is more often grown for its stem.  Celtuce (Downtowngal) CC BY-SA 3.0 Also known as asparagus lettuce, celery lettuce, Chinese lettuce, stem lettuce, or wosun, celtuce tastes like a cross between, you guessed it, asparagus, broccoli, and celery. Popular in Chinese food, celtuce was probably developed along with other lettuces during Roman times and then found its way to China during the Tang Dynasty. Celtuce (Lactuca sativa var. augustana, angustata, or asparagina) is a cool-weather crop that needs consistent moisture to prevent it from turning bitter. Celtuce description These plants look like a giant, open Romaine, with upright lance-shaped leaves. They can grow as large as a cabbage plant.  Celtuce grown with cabbages (David Ebro) CC BY-SA 3.0 Like other lettuces, celtuce is day length-sensitive, which means it tends to bolt when the days are long. Bolting refers to premature flowering and stem elongation, which makes your celtuce taste bitter. But if it does bolt, let it go. Celtuce can grow 4 or 5 feet tall, providing nectar, pollen, habitat, and landing platforms for many beneficial insects (and you get free seeds!).
How to grow celtuce Plant seeds no more than ¼-inch deep. They germinate best in temperatures from 35°F to 60°F and should be planted 14- to 24-inches apart. These plants will reach maturity in about 60 days. They will be 12-18-inches long. Early leaves can be harvested 4 or 5 weeks after planting, starting at the bottom of the plant. This cut-and-come-again characteristic means you can get a surprising amount of food from a single plant. Mature leaves are edible but tend to be too bitter due to their milky sap. One way to avoid the limitations of a hot summer is to grow your celtuce indoors, where temperatures tend to be more stable. Lettuce and celtuce root systems are shallow, so containers do not need to be especially large. These plants need nutrient-rich soil, so use high-quality potting soil in your containers. Problems with celtuce Aphids, slugs, snails, and whiteflies are attracted to your celtuce. And I’m going to assume that most lettuce problems apply to celtuce. Celtuce stems tend to split after heavy rain, providing entry for pests and diseases. How about sharing a pack of celtuce seeds with your friends and neighbors to see what you think about this delicious crunchy green? Imagine a tuber with the texture of water chestnut and the flavor of a starchy apple. This cousin of wood sorrel is called oca.  Oca tubers (Laurenjm) CC BY-SA 3.0 Oca (Oxalis tuberosa) is a perennial edible that overwinters as underground stems similar to sweet potatoes. Oca has been a dietary staple of the Andes region for centuries, and you can grow it at home and enjoy it raw, cooked, or pickled. Highly nutritious, oca is a very flexible plant. The tubers, leaves, and stems are all edible. Oca description The tubers are small and nubby. To me, they almost look like turmeric rhizomes. They can be orange, pink, or yellow, but most commonly are red. The leaves look a lot like Bermuda buttercup. Flowers appear after 3 or 4 months. Oca starts producing tubers when temperatures drop into the low 50s (°F) and the days get shorter.  Oca plant (Izawa Ryu) CC BY-SA 4.0 How to grow oca
These plants grow best in cool, wet weather. When shopping for oca tubers, opt for sweet oca over sour oca. Both are edible, but the names pretty much say it all. Plant seed tubers two to three inches deep and 24-36” apart. Like yacón, another Andean native, these plants grow well in poor soil and harsh climates, but need a long growing season. Each oca plant can produce up to three pounds of tubers yearly, though one pound is more likely. Oca pests and diseases Nematodes and weevils can damage your oca crop. Some viral diseases may also appear, but you can reduce most problems with a three-year crop rotation. If you have a plant that looks sick, the first thing you should do is to rule out insect feeding. Insect feeding usually creates holes and ragged edges on leaves, gnawed areas on fruits, or damaged roots. You might see eggs or insects on the underside of leaves, telltale slime trails, or ant brigades. Next, ask yourself where the problem is happening. Is it the leaves, fruit, stems, or the whole plant? If you know the type of plant, you may be able to narrow things down to a family-specific condition. This chart should help you figure out what's happening to your plant:  And here's a way to download your won version: 
I’ve written about so many foods we can grow at home that it is a pleasant surprise to discover yet another option: shiso.  Bicolor shiso (Raffi Kojian) CC BY-SA 3.0 Shiso (Perilla frutescens) is a member of the mint family. This herb from Southeast Asia is called beefsteak plant, rattlesnake weed, and Chinese basil in the US. You can eat the leaves fresh in a salad, stirred into a casserole, or dried and used as a seasoning. They make a tasty garnish, too. And the seed pods can be salted and eaten as a snack.  Green shiso leaves (Zeimusu) CC BY-SA 3.0 Shiso description Shiso is a substantial plant that can grow 3 feet tall. In Zones 11-12, it can be grown as a perennial. You can also grow it indoors year-round as an edible houseplant or treat it as an annual. The broad leaves have pointed ends and are serrated. There are several varieties of shiso:
When the stalks dry, they make the sound of a rattlesnake’s rattle when brushed. _(2).jpg) Shiso seed pods (USGS Bee Inventory and Monitoring Lab) Public Domain How to grow shiso
Shiso can be grown from seeds. They should germinate in 14 to 20 days. These plants grow well in partial shade and can handle full sun in mild regions. Treat these plants like basil, pinching the growing tips regularly to encourage bushy growth. Add this new taste to your kitchen garden or windowsill today. |
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