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Money may not grow on trees, but cocoa beans do!  Delicious chocolate has been a treat for over 5,000 years. But what do we know about this cousin of okra and cotton? Let’s find out. First, when I hear the word bean, I think of legumes. In the case of cocoa beans, I would be incorrect. Like coffee beans and kola nuts, cocoa beans are the seeds of a fruit. The cocoa we enjoy as chocolate is the dried and fermented seed of the cacao or cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao). That Latin name comes from the Greek word for “food of the gods”. Cocoa tree description Evergreen cocoa trees grow 20 to 40 feet tall. The leaves are broad, 3” long, and alternate along the stems. Thousands of tiny flowers grow in clusters directly from the trunk and large branches in a behavior known as cauliflory, but mature trees may only produce 20 fruits each year. .jpg) Cocoa flowers (Vinayaraj) CC BY-SA 4.0 The fruit or pod can grow nearly a foot long and weigh up to one pound. Inside the fruit, 20 to 60 seeds are held in a white pulp. In some countries, cocoa pulp is used to make jellies and juice. But it is the seeds that give us chocolate. Cocoa seeds contain 40–50% fat. We call that fat cocoa butter. And it takes more than 500 seeds to make one pound of cocoa paste.  A cacao tree with fruit pods in various stages of ripening. (Medicaster) Public Domain  Cocoa seeds inside fruit (Keith Weller, USDA) Public Domain There are three types of cocoa trees, each with distinct characteristics:
 The three traditional varieties- Forastero, Trinitario, and Criollo (Tamorian) CC BY 3.0 How cocoa trees grow
Cocoa trees are grown from budding, cuttings, grafting, or seeds. You can also buy seedlings. Native to the understory of the American tropics, cocoa trees grow best in warm, wet, somewhat shaded locations. [USDA Hardiness Zones 10-12] They cannot tolerate temperatures below 55°F for long. Cocoa trees do not produce pods until they are four or five years old. They have extensive root systems that thrive in red clay (laterite) soils with a pH of 6.5 to 7.0 and good drainage. Unlike many other fruiting trees, biting midges (Forcipomyia) pollinate cocoa flowers instead of bees and butterflies. Pests and diseases of cocoa trees Most cocoa tree pests are region-specific. In the Americas, the cocoa fruit borer (Carmenta theobromae) causes significant problems, as do rats, squirrels, and woodpeckers. Fungal diseases of cocoa trees include Ceratocystis wilt, frosty pod rot, vascular streak dieback, Verticillium wilt, and witches’ broom. The cacao swollen shoot virus can infect cocoa trees, and mistletoe can drain your trees. Habitat loss is the biggest threat to modern cocoa trees. Many current growing areas are expected to be unsuitable by 2050. If you can, you might want to plant one today! Many of us use cinnamon in baking and other dishes, but how much do we know about this fascinating spice? And did you know that much of the cinnamon found in stores isn’t really cinnamon? Read on!  Dried bark strips, bark powder and flowers of Ceylon cinnamon (Simon A. Eugster) CC BY-SA 3.0 Cinnamon has been prized for thousands of years. Initially considered fit only for gods, monarchs, and mummies, those who knew where it came from kept their sources secret to maintain their monopoly. Instead, they encouraged myths about giant cinnamon birds who collected the dried sticks from distant shores where the trees were guarded by winged serpents. Two thousand years ago, 11 ounces of cinnamon cost the equivalent of 50 months’ labor. In the Middle Ages, it was believed that cinnamon was fished up in nets from the Nile River. In any case, the delicious aroma we associate with cinnamon comes to us from the inner bark of several different trees in the Cinnamomum genus. These trees are cousins to bay and other laurels. Cinnamon trees are evergreens with oval leaves and thick bark.  Cinnamon leaves (L. Shyamal) CC BY-SA 3.0
There are four major types of cassia:
Cassia is often mixed with true cinnamon to form a counterfeit product marked falsely as cinnamon. I guess we get what we pay for. How cinnamon is managed Cinnamon trees are allowed to grow for two years before harvesting begins. They are grown on plantations in South America, Asia, China, and India. Once the trees are mature enough, they are coppiced. The following year, parts of the outer bark are scraped off to expose the inner bark. This inner bark is peeled off and sun-dried or ground into powder. Stick cinnamon can last up to five years when stored in an airtight container, but ground cinnamon should be used within six months. Or, you can try growing your own.  Cinnamon flowers (Augustus Binu) CC BY-SA 3.0 How to grow cinnamon
You can grow a cinnamon tree indoors pretty much anywhere. You’ll need to live in USDA Hardiness Zones 10-12 for one to grow well outside. These trees prefer slightly acidic soil (pH 6.2-7.2). Depending on the variety selected, your tree may grow 3 to 60 feet tall and 2 to 20 feet wide, so plan accordingly. Your cinnamon tree will need plenty of direct sunlight but can handle some afternoon shade. These trees should be watered deeply and fertilized often when establishing a root system and every spring. You can grow a cinnamon tree from a stem cutting or purchase a seedling. Cinnamon pests and diseases Cinnamon trees are vulnerable to several fungal diseases including types of Diplodia, the fungal pathogen responsible for anthracnose (Glomerella cingulate), and a form of dieback known as cinnamon fungus (Phytophthora cinnamomi). Leaf miners and mealybugs are common cinnamon tree pests. In the tropics, cinnamon butterfly caterpillars and cinnamon gall mites are the primary pests. When cinnamon is cured improperly, many pests are attracted to the fragrant, vulnerable wood. Fumigation with sulfur dioxide is the most common treatment. [I have no idea how much sulfur dioxide remains on our cinnamon once it reaches the store.] Are you seeing speckled leaves? Are leaf veins turning yellow? Are your plants stunted or looking pale? It may be aster yellows, and that disease comes into the garden on aster leafhoppers.  Aster leafhopper (Whitney Cranshaw, USDA Forest Service) CC BY 3.0 Also known as six-spotted leafhoppers, aster leafhoppers (Macrosteles quadrilineatus) prefer cereals and other grasses, such as barley, corn, oats, and rye. They also feed on carrots, celery, cucumber, dill, lettuce, onions, potato, pumpkin and other squash, and radish. Once they have fed on a plant infected with aster yellows, they carry that disease to all the plants they feed on.
Aster leafhopper description Aster leafhoppers are good at hiding. Before you see them, you may notice tiny insects launching themselves away at your approach. These bugs are only one-eighth of an inch long, narrow, and a dull light green. If you can get ahold of one and take a closer look, you will see that they have six white spots on their heads, but you’ll probably need a hand lens to see that much detail. Nymphs look like pale, wingless adults. Like their parents, they prefer hiding on the underside of leaves. Aster leafhopper management Remove any plants infected with aster yellows to reduce the spread of disease. Aster leafhopper management is tricky. You can use row covers to protect your plants beforehand. You can also use insecticidal soap and horticultural oils to eradicate these pests. Just be careful with those oils in summer because they can increase the likelihood of sunburn damage. As more gardeners face rising temperatures and increasing drought, it’s good to know that some edible plants love that weather. Thanks to a comment from Nina in our discussion about xeriscapes, we are going to learn about a delicious berry called agarita.  Ripe agarita berries (Clarence A. Rechenthin @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database) Public Domain Said to taste like a cross between strawberry and raspberry, this fruit of the desert has a lot to offer home gardeners. It is also popular with songbirds, and the spiny branches provide a haven to quail and many small mammals, improving biodiversity in your landscape. Agarita description Agarita (Mahonia trifoliolata) is a member of the barberry family. Like other evergreen barberries, this shrub tends to grow 3-6 feet tall and wide, though it can grow taller under the right conditions. The gray-blue-green leaves look (and feel) similar to holly with spines on the tips. The wood and fragrant flowers are bright yellow. Honeybees love using those flowers to make high-quality honey. The fruit is a pea-sized red berry often used to make jellies, syrups, and wine. .jpg) Agarita flowers (Dave Whitinger, All Things Plants) CC BY-SA 3.0 How to grow agarita Native to coastal south Texas, Arizona, and northern Mexico, agarita grows best in open, rocky areas with well-drained clay, loam, limestone, or caliche. According to Webster, caliche is “a mineral deposit of gravel sand, and nitrates, found especially in dry areas of South America.” We’ll learn more about that another day. Agarita is grown from seed. Those seeds require 2-3 months of cold stratification to germinate so that you can plant them in summer for a spring appearance. You can also start new agarita plants with sprouts that emerge from existing plants. Your agarita can be grown in full sun or light shade. Caring for agarita Agarita needs very little water. In fact, it doesn’t need much of anything. Once established, agarita makes an excellent hedge or thicket. Like Oregon grape, these spiny shrubs make excellent defensive plants.  Agarita leaves look worse than they feel (Stan Shebs) CC BY-SA 3.0 Agarita pests and diseases
Agarita has very few problems. The roots contain alkaloids that inhibit fungi, and It even thwarts deer! Leaf spots and rusts can occur, and agarita is an intermediate host for stem rust, which can cause significant problems for barley, oats, rye, and wheat, so plan accordingly. Try growing agarita in your landscape for some refreshing summer fruit. Have you ever seen two fruits growing together from the same stem?  Twin cherries (Jiaqian AirplaneFan) CC BY 3.0 Twinning commonly occurs among stone fruits but is also seen in apples, pears, kiwifruit, coconuts, and zucchini. You may even see fruit quadrupling. But it is better to prevent fruit doubling.  Golden zucchini twinning (Jonathunder) CC BY-SA 3.0 What does twinning look like? Conjoined fruits may share a little or a lot of one side. Those shared areas may be small, leaving the two fruits primarily separate. Or, they can share the entire length of the fruit. Either way, when these fruits are separated, they rot more quickly. .JPG) Twin lychees (B.navez) CC BY-SA 4.0  Coconut twinning (Didier Descouens) CC BY-SA 4.0. What causes twinning? Twinning is the result of environmental stresses. The fertilization of a single ovary usually results in one fruit. Frost damage can injure fruit buds before we even see them. Later in the season, heat and water stress can interfere with carpel formation. Carpels are the female reproductive parts of a flower (ovary, stigma, and style). This damage can result in flowers with multiple carpels that grow into conjoined fruits. Irregular irrigation and insufficient chill hours can cause twinning, too. .jpg) Conjoined mangos (Eliran t) CC BY-SA 4.0 How can twinning be prevented?
Select fruit tree varieties suited to your USDA Hardiness Zone and microclimate. Pay special attention to the number of chill hours required to produce fruit. As always, install your trees at the proper depth since healthy trees can protect themselves in many cases. Regular spring and summer irrigation and winter protection will also help prevent twinning. Twinned fruit should be removed as part of your normal fruit thinning as these fruits are more prone to pest and disease problems. If you end up with mature twinned fruit, take a photo and eat it. New Pest Alert! Are you seeing masses of red or red and black bugs in your garden? .jpg) Mediterranean Red Bug (Katja Schulz) CC BY 2.0 First seen in the U.S. in 2009, Mediterranean red bugs, or simply red bugs, have become a problem. Easily mistaken for boxelder and milkweed bugs, red bugs are something else altogether. Mediterranean red bug description Mature Mediterranean red bugs (Scantius aegyptius) are only 1/3 of an inch long. The head, legs, and antennae are black. The body is red with a distinct hourglass-like shape and dots on either side of the back. Nymphs are red. The black markings become more pronounced after each molt. Several lookalike bugs impact our gardens differently:
Damage caused by red bugs
Scientists are still learning about which plants are vulnerable to red bugs. Because these bugs eat knotweed and malva, you may be tempted to let them slide. That can backfire in the long run if we learn that many other annual plants and their seeds are vulnerable in a year or two. These bugs are extremely prolific, and the balance of controls between pests and beneficial insects (among other things) can be very delicate and easily disrupted. I think we can agree that there has been enough of that already. If you see a red bug, try to catch it and contact your local County Extension Office.  Culantro (Mokkie) CC BY-SA 3.0 Culantro (Eryngium foetidum) is a distant relative to cilantro, but don’t let the name similarities confuse you. This herb is more pungent and bitter. But it does wonders for stimulating the appetite and adding depth of flavor to many South and Central American and East Asian dishes. Culantro is a low-growing tropical plant with saw-toothed leaves that grow in a rosette form.
When transplanting, space plants 12” apart. Unlike most herbs, culantro prefers soil that stays moist. Mulching around (but not touching) these plants can help stabilize soil moisture and reduce competition from weeds.
Culantro is relatively pest- and disease-free. Its umbrella-shaped flowers attract several beneficial insects, such as hoverflies and lacewings. The best reason for growing culantro is its delicious flavor. Who ever heard of a tomato tree? Well, it ends up that there is a small tree in the nightshade family that produces tart fruits with the texture of an extra firm tomato. It is called tamarillo.  Tomato tree (Ljuba brank) CC BY-SA 3.0 Tamarillo (Solanum betaceum) goes by many other names, including blood fruit, Dutch eggplant, and poor man’s tomato. Unlike the flavor of sun-sweetened tomatoes, these fruits taste more like what you might imagine an unripe melon crossed with a persimmon would be like. Before you give up on tamarillo, you need to know that these fruits are very flavorful. Add just a little sugar and transform the pulp into a refreshing beverage, refreshing toast topper, or delicious chutney, curry, or dessert. Tamarillo description Fast-growing tamarillo trees can reach heights of 12 to 15 feet. These perennial trees can live for 12 years. Seed-grown tamarillos feature a central trunk, while those grown from cuttings have a bushier shape. Both produce clustered fruit on lateral branches. The flowers are fragrant and self-pollinating, though production increases significantly if another tamarillo is nearby to cross-pollinate the flowers.  Tomato tree fruits (Ivar Leidus) CC BY-SA 4.0 Fruits may be red (tart) or yellow (sweeter) and contain large seeds.
How to grow tamarillo You can grow tamarillo from seeds or cuttings. Native to Central America, they prefer a warm climate and need protection from frost and cold winter temperatures. These are shallow-rooted trees that require regular irrigation. Mulch helps maintain stable soil moisture levels. Since they can hybridize with other members of the tomato family, you may want to plant them at a distance from other nightshade crops. Tamarillo pests and diseases Tamarillos are susceptible to tomato mosaic and powdery mildew. Tomato potato psyllids can be devastating, and nematodes can seriously damage young trees. Aphids and whiteflies are also common pests of tamarillo. While not what you expect from a tomato, a tomato tree might be just what your yard needs! We are not talking about the okra found in your gumbo. Chinese okra is a member of the squash and melon family. Native to South Asia, this fruit is used as a vegetable while young and as a scrubbing sponge when mature. These fruits can grow 18” long and look impressive when interspersed with red noodle bean plants!
Chinese okra description Chinese okra (Luffa acutangula) looks like a cucumber crossed with a zucchini with longitudinal ridges. Flowers are a sunny yellow and beautifully fragrant, especially in the evening. Vines are sturdy and may climb up to 12 feet, making these plants an excellent choice for a pergola, fence, or trellis.
The broad leaves look like other cucurbits. Extrafloral nectaries are commonly found and provide a haven for beneficial insects. The slightly bitter fruit and flowers are edible, and the skin is tough.  Extrafloral nectaries and ants (Brnfvr) CC BY-SA 4.0 How to grow Chinese okra
These plants can be grown in temperatures ranging from 68°F to 106°F. They need lots of sunlight but may benefit from protection from harsh afternoon sunlight that may cause sunburn. The seeds are large and easy to work with. Many people soak seeds overnight before planting. Plant seeds one-half inch deep, next to something the seedlings can climb, in soil with good drainage. Water deeply each week, allowing the soil to dry out between waterings. Chinese okra pests and diseases If it gets too cold, the leaves will darken, and water-soaked necrosis and wilting may occur. Leaf beetles and leaf miners are common pests of Chinese okra. Yellow spot may also occur. Harvest fruits while young and enjoy the way they soak up sauces. And if your Chinese okra gets too old, you can always let it dry and enjoy a luffa in your bath!
Biribá (Rollinia deliciosa) is also known as the lemon meringue pie fruit, so I am intrigued! These trees grow fast, are flood-tolerant, and love plenty of sunshine. The fruit turns yellow when ripe but doesn’t last long enough to get to grocery store shelves. If you live in a semi-tropical region, this is the one I recommend.  Biribá (申義徳博士) CC BY-SA 4.0 Cherimoya Cherimoya (Annona cherimola) fruits are heart-shaped and look like they are covered with scales. They grow fast and are mostly evergreen. But cherimoya seeds are poisonous if crushed, so don’t chew on them. Custard apple Custard apple (A. reticulata) fruits are fragrant and commonly used in juices, pudding, and eaten raw. The wood is soft and low quality, but the plants are often used as rootstock for other Annona species. Ilama Ilama (A. diversifolia) fruit comes in green and pink varieties. And those pink ones nearly look red inside. These plants are generally non-climacteric, so fruits will not ripen once picked. Soncoya Soncoya (A. purpurea) fruits look bristly and are generally not worth growing. It is fibrous and described as “of indifferent quality” (Wikipedia). I think they look pretty neat, and they can be grown in containers.  Soursop fruit (Damien Boilley) CC BY-SA 2.0 Soursop Soursop (A. muricata) trees love heat and humidity. The fruit smells similar to pineapple and tastes like a cross between apples and strawberries, though I have never had it. Some people claim that soursop cures cancer, but there are no studies to verify those claims. Sugar apple/sweetsop Sugar apple/sweetsop (A. squamosa) has a distinct custard flavor. Trees are small, semi-deciduous, and prolific. The seeds are commonly ground up and used as an insecticide.  Sweetsop fruit (Yarzaryeni) CC BY 4.0 Pests and diseases of the custard apple family
Custard apple plants are susceptible to anthracnose, black canker, diplodia rot, and leaf spot. Common pests include mealybugs and nematodes. These plants are considered invasive in many regions. So what about those risks? While most of these aromatic, tropical and semi-tropical plants share similar growth habits, low-branching, large, sometimes fuzzy, leaves, and textured, heavy fruits, they also share a big problem. The seeds and leaves of these plants contain something called annonacin. Annonacin is a potentially lethal neurotoxin that can cause brain lesions consistent with Parkinson’s disease. The leaves are commonly used in teas and herbal remedies, and regular use can cause severe diseases, including Parkinson’s and palsy, so only eat the fruit. Lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora) is a woody perennial shrub you can add to your garden for delightful teas, lemony fish and poultry dishes, puddings, custards, and syrup. You can also use it to create a fast-growing* lemon-scented hedge. *Lemon verbena grown from seed grows slowly. Plants grown from cuttings or dividing grow fast.
Is lemon verbena an effective herbal remedy or not?
There are numerous claims about the effectiveness of lemon verbena as an herbal remedy for everything from stomach upset, anxiety, and muscle repair to weight loss and joint pain. While claims like these often turn out to be untrue or exaggerated, science is beginning to support at least some of them. The National Institutes of Health published a study concluding that lemon verbena has “promising antioxidant and anti-proliferation effects.” Until we know more about how lemon verbena can improve our health, we can happily grow it at home for other reasons. How to grow lemon verbena These plants are drought-tolerant. They grow best in fertile soil with excellent drainage and full sun. Plant seeds, seedlings, or tip cuttings 12-18” apart. In USDA Hardiness Zones 8a-10b, you can grow these plants as perennials. In cooler regions, it can be grown as an annual. Common pests and diseases of lemon verbena Aphids, slugs, and snails are the most common pests of lemon verbena. Leaf miners, mealybugs, spider mites, thrips, and whiteflies may also cause problems. Yellow sticky sheets can significantly reduce populations of these pests. These plants also experience root rots, which can be avoided by allowing the soil to dry out between waterings. Other potential diseases of lemon verbena include gray mold, powdery mildew, spotted wilt, and Verticillium wilt. Again, monitor soil moisture levels and avoid overhead watering. Add this lemony fresh herb to your landscape for years of delicious flavor and showy flowers. The maple syrup on your French toast and those yummy maple syrup candies seen around the holidays are tree sap. .jpg) Sugar maple leaves (Superior National Forest) CC BY 2.0 Sugar maples (Acer saccharum) are related to soapberries and lychee. These deciduous hardwood trees create glorious fall foliage before winter sets in. As temperatures rise, trees convert the starches stored over the winter into sugary sap. That sap starts rising through the phloem to feed new growth. That’s where we step in.  Sugar maple tap and bucket (Wagner2005) CC BY 3.0 DEED Many years ago, in Stafford, Virginia, I opened a private K-12 school called Children’s Academy. We had a silver maple tree on the property, so we decided to try our hand at tapping it. Tapping trees refers to the way we get to the sap. Taps, also known as spiles or cask pegs, used to be hand-carved wooden tubes, but modern taps are metal. Taps are hammered into the tree to reach the phloem, just under the bark, where the sap flows. Maple description Most of us are familiar with hand-shaped, pointy maple leaves. These trees can get quite large, growing 80 feet tall or more. The bark is a lovely pale gray. The greenish-yellow flowers do not have petals. Instead, they grow in several panicles, clustered together, usually after 30-55 growing degree days. The fruit grows in winged pairs that most of us called ‘helicopters’ because they spin as they fall. Those fruits are called samaras, and they contain maple seeds.
Other maples Sugar and black maples (Acer nigrum) are the primary sources of maple syrup, but our silver maple did well enough. Other maples, including our silver, have lower sugar levels and produce a cloudy (but still delicious) syrup. Norway maples are quickly taking over suburban streets because of their ability to withstand air pollution and weather fleck better than sugar maples. Unfortunately, they are not good sources of sap. One way to tell which maple tree you have is to look at the sap in a leaf petiole. Sugar maple sap is clear. Norway maple sap is white. How maple trees grow Maples love cold winters and are best suited to USDA Hardiness Zones 3-5. They take 30 years to reach seed-bearing age and live 200 years or more. These trees are very shade-tolerant. They are best planted as saplings in the spring or fall in well-draining soil. They prefer slightly acidic soil but can grow in soil pH levels of 5.0—7.0. .jpg) Sugar making in Montreal, October 1852 by Cornelius Krieghoff (artist); Sarony & Major (engraver) Public Domain How to make maple syrup
Sap was traditionally boiled over an open fire for a very long time to get rid of the excess water. But it takes, on average, 40 gallons of sap to make one gallon of syrup. Collecting sap is very labor-intensive, and all that cooking uses a lot of energy, so now you know why maple syrup is so pricey. Compounding that problem is the maple tree’s sensitivity to air pollution. Maple tree decline Starting in the 1950s and culminating 40 years later, a drastic decline in Canadian sugar maples was considered a serious threat to the species (and global maple syrup supplies). Acid rain was killing all the sugar maples in Canada and the northeast US. So Canada and the US created The Canada – United States Air Quality Agreement in 1991. By 2023, the actions outlined in that agreement resulted in a significant decrease in the chemicals responsible for acid rain and sugar maples started to recover. [See what we can do when we work together?] Did you know that the samaras can be soaked, boiled, seasoned, and roasted (without the wings) for a yummy snack? I didn’t either. Now we know. Have you ever heard of galangal? I saw it used on an episode of Chopped and had to learn more. Imagine ginger crossed with horseradish, black pepper, and a little pine. To me, that sounds like a perfect addition to stir-fry. Even more intriguing, the fragrant flowers, glossy leaves, tender shoots, and cardamom-flavored berries are also edible.  Galanga rhizomes (Susan Slater) CC BY-SA 4.0 Galangal is a rhizome that looks a lot like ginger but has more of a peppery bite. It is a popular ingredient in many Asian dishes and you can grow it at home. Not only does galangal make a tasty ingredient, but it is also an attractive grass plant. Galangal is a member of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae) and a close cousin of turmeric. Before you jump on the galangal bandwagon, you need to know that four different plants go by that name:
All of them are edible, but we are only discussing the Alpinia galangals here. Lesser galangal has a more bitter pine flavor, while great galangal has a more medicinal ginger flavor. Under ideal conditions, greater galangal can grow 6 feet tall and 3 feet wide. Lesser galangal is smaller.
Plant rhizomes when the soil is warm. Cover them with 3 or 4 inches of soil. Space plants 12-18 inches apart. They will need good drainage and partial or full sun exposure. If you have scorching summers, your galangal may need protection from the afternoon sun to prevent sunburn damage. Use a one-gallon or larger container for potted galangal.
These plants need plenty of water in the early stages. Soaker hoses are an excellent tool for watering galangal. Mulching around your galangal will help the soil stay moist without becoming soggy. How you feed your galangal will depend on where it is being grown. An inexpensive lab-based soil test can tell you what you need to feed plants growing in the ground. Container-grown galangal will benefit from light monthly feedings of fish emulsion or other balanced fertilizer. Galangal pests and diseases When ginger stalks turn brown, they are dead. Cut them off and add them to the compost pile. When galangal stalks turn brown, it is often a symptom of too much or too little water. Chlorosis or dull leaves may indicate insufficient nutrients. The most common pests include aphids, root borers, grasshoppers, and spider mites. Beneficial insects and the judicious use of Bt can eliminate most of these pests. Severe infestations may require the use of spinosad. Prevent root rot and rust by avoiding overhead watering and ensuring good drainage. Harvest your galangal by digging up the entire plant, removing what you want, and replanting the rest. Instead of tamping down the soil, which damages valuable root hairs, “mud in” the replanted part. You will want to harvest before the rhizomes become tough. And be sure to save some for replanting. As a bonus, research has shown that eating galangal increases alertness, improves focus, impedes caffeine crashes, and may provide anti-inflammatory protection. And hummingbirds love galangal. How’s that for a stir-fry? Most of us grow lettuce for the leaves, but celtuce is a variety of lettuce that is more often grown for its stem.  Celtuce (Downtowngal) CC BY-SA 3.0 Also known as asparagus lettuce, celery lettuce, Chinese lettuce, stem lettuce, or wosun, celtuce tastes like a cross between, you guessed it, asparagus, broccoli, and celery. Popular in Chinese food, celtuce was probably developed along with other lettuces during Roman times and then found its way to China during the Tang Dynasty. Celtuce (Lactuca sativa var. augustana, angustata, or asparagina) is a cool-weather crop that needs consistent moisture to prevent it from turning bitter. Celtuce description These plants look like a giant, open Romaine, with upright lance-shaped leaves. They can grow as large as a cabbage plant.  Celtuce grown with cabbages (David Ebro) CC BY-SA 3.0 Like other lettuces, celtuce is day length-sensitive, which means it tends to bolt when the days are long. Bolting refers to premature flowering and stem elongation, which makes your celtuce taste bitter. But if it does bolt, let it go. Celtuce can grow 4 or 5 feet tall, providing nectar, pollen, habitat, and landing platforms for many beneficial insects (and you get free seeds!).
How to grow celtuce Plant seeds no more than ¼-inch deep. They germinate best in temperatures from 35°F to 60°F and should be planted 14- to 24-inches apart. These plants will reach maturity in about 60 days. They will be 12-18-inches long. Early leaves can be harvested 4 or 5 weeks after planting, starting at the bottom of the plant. This cut-and-come-again characteristic means you can get a surprising amount of food from a single plant. Mature leaves are edible but tend to be too bitter due to their milky sap. One way to avoid the limitations of a hot summer is to grow your celtuce indoors, where temperatures tend to be more stable. Lettuce and celtuce root systems are shallow, so containers do not need to be especially large. These plants need nutrient-rich soil, so use high-quality potting soil in your containers. Problems with celtuce Aphids, slugs, snails, and whiteflies are attracted to your celtuce. And I’m going to assume that most lettuce problems apply to celtuce. Celtuce stems tend to split after heavy rain, providing entry for pests and diseases. How about sharing a pack of celtuce seeds with your friends and neighbors to see what you think about this delicious crunchy green? Imagine a tuber with the texture of water chestnut and the flavor of a starchy apple. This cousin of wood sorrel is called oca.  Oca tubers (Laurenjm) CC BY-SA 3.0 Oca (Oxalis tuberosa) is a perennial edible that overwinters as underground stems similar to sweet potatoes. Oca has been a dietary staple of the Andes region for centuries, and you can grow it at home and enjoy it raw, cooked, or pickled. Highly nutritious, oca is a very flexible plant. The tubers, leaves, and stems are all edible. Oca description The tubers are small and nubby. To me, they almost look like turmeric rhizomes. They can be orange, pink, or yellow, but most commonly are red. The leaves look a lot like Bermuda buttercup. Flowers appear after 3 or 4 months. Oca starts producing tubers when temperatures drop into the low 50s (°F) and the days get shorter.  Oca plant (Izawa Ryu) CC BY-SA 4.0 How to grow oca
These plants grow best in cool, wet weather. When shopping for oca tubers, opt for sweet oca over sour oca. Both are edible, but the names pretty much say it all. Plant seed tubers two to three inches deep and 24-36” apart. Like yacón, another Andean native, these plants grow well in poor soil and harsh climates, but need a long growing season. Each oca plant can produce up to three pounds of tubers yearly, though one pound is more likely. Oca pests and diseases Nematodes and weevils can damage your oca crop. Some viral diseases may also appear, but you can reduce most problems with a three-year crop rotation. If you have a plant that looks sick, the first thing you should do is to rule out insect feeding. Insect feeding usually creates holes and ragged edges on leaves, gnawed areas on fruits, or damaged roots. You might see eggs or insects on the underside of leaves, telltale slime trails, or ant brigades. Next, ask yourself where the problem is happening. Is it the leaves, fruit, stems, or the whole plant? If you know the type of plant, you may be able to narrow things down to a family-specific condition. This chart should help you figure out what's happening to your plant:  And here's a way to download your won version: 
I’ve written about so many foods we can grow at home that it is a pleasant surprise to discover yet another option: shiso.  Bicolor shiso (Raffi Kojian) CC BY-SA 3.0 Shiso (Perilla frutescens) is a member of the mint family. This herb from Southeast Asia is called beefsteak plant, rattlesnake weed, and Chinese basil in the US. You can eat the leaves fresh in a salad, stirred into a casserole, or dried and used as a seasoning. They make a tasty garnish, too. And the seed pods can be salted and eaten as a snack.  Green shiso leaves (Zeimusu) CC BY-SA 3.0 Shiso description Shiso is a substantial plant that can grow 3 feet tall. In Zones 11-12, it can be grown as a perennial. You can also grow it indoors year-round as an edible houseplant or treat it as an annual. The broad leaves have pointed ends and are serrated. There are several varieties of shiso:
When the stalks dry, they make the sound of a rattlesnake’s rattle when brushed. _(2).jpg) Shiso seed pods (USGS Bee Inventory and Monitoring Lab) Public Domain How to grow shiso
Shiso can be grown from seeds. They should germinate in 14 to 20 days. These plants grow well in partial shade and can handle full sun in mild regions. Treat these plants like basil, pinching the growing tips regularly to encourage bushy growth. Add this new taste to your kitchen garden or windowsill today.
The most likely culprit of bleaching is too much or too little sun, especially for seedlings and new transplants. Sunburned leaves turn white and die. Air pollution, ozone damage, PAN, and weather flecking can cause bleaching. And if you or your neighbor recently applied herbicides, localized bleaching may be from chemical overspray. Frost damage can also cause bleaching.
Bleaching through the soil Zinc deficiencies appear as yellowing between young leaf veins and overall bleaching that does not reach leaf edges or midribs. This bleaching can also cause narrow yellow or white stripes between the veins of the upper leaves. Bleached leaves may also be telling you the soil is low in iron. Persimmon trees, in particular, are sensitive to iron deficiencies. It may be time for one of those inexpensive, lab-based soil tests. If your soil looks lighter than it used to, add more organic material. Bleaching caused by disease White mold can make leaves look bleached. Bleached leaves and stems on tomato or pea plants often indicate Fusarium wilt. If leaf tips are turning white, it may be Ascochyta leaf blight. If your blackberries or raspberries have tiny bleached bits, it means temperatures rose suddenly and humidity levels dropped. This condition is called white drupelet. Trees with silvery or bleached leaves may have silver leaf, a potentially deadly fungal disease. And if you happen to be growing rice in Viet Nam, there is a newish bacterial infection that causes bleached leaves. While you cannot reverse the damage done to bleached plant tissue, you can use that information to help your plants regain their health and productivity. Charcoal rot is a fungal disease of beans, corn, cucurbits, and potatoes. Also known as dry-weather wilt, this disease can be devastating in areas with hot, dry summers.
Since you have no control over the hot, dry weather that compounds this problem, your best bets are to invest in certified disease-free seeds and seedlings and look for short-season varieties that can develop before the disease takes hold.  Corn stalk infected with charcoal rot (William M. Brown Jr., Bugwood.org) CC BY 3.0 US DEED The pathogen responsible for charcoal rot (Macrophomina phaseolina) can remain viable in dry soil for several years.
Healthy plants produce flowers that get pollinated by bees, bats, and wind. Those pollinated flowers turn into the lion’s share of why we garden.
Food
Too much or too little food can eliminate flower production in the garden. Excessive amounts of nitrogen make plants produce lots of leaves but little or no flowers. Not enough nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium can also delay flowering. An inexpensive lab-based soil test is the only way to know what is in your soil. Light Different plants have different sun exposure needs. Raspberries exposed to scorching afternoon sun will put all their energy into recovering from sunburn rather than producing delicious berries. Plants that need lots of sunlight do not generate enough sugar to make flowers if planted in a shady corner. Pruning Prune too much, too little, too soon, too late, or in the wrong place, and flower production can be reduced or eliminated. Plants pruned too heavily may not have the resources needed to generate flowers. Each species has unique pruning needs. Generally speaking, it is better to wait until after flower and fruit production or until plants enter dormancy before any significant pruning occurs. Did you know that young walnut trees produce almost all of their flowers on the ends of long stems? Cut those off, and you will have an attractive little tree and no walnuts. Learn more about production pruning to ensure you are giving your plants the care they need. Temperature Sudden low or high temperature shifts can trick plants into halting flower production. A late frost can also kill flower buds before they emerge. Seeds planted too early in the season will use up too many nutrients to get started to have enough energy for flowers. Some plants require a minimum of chill hours before flower production begins. If winter is too mild, there may be no flowers the following spring. Planting at the right time of year, in an appropriate location, and providing proper care can boost flower production and your harvests. If you squeeze a potato and a pale ooze comes out of its eyes, it has brown rot. Also known as bacterial wilt of tomato and potato and southern bacterial wilt, potato brown rot is not the bacterial wilt that infects cucurbits or the brown rot of stone fruit trees. Instead, this disease targets the nightshade family, infecting eggplant, peppers, potatoes, and tomatoes. Oddly enough, bananas, ginger, and olives are also susceptible.  Tomato plant infected with southern brown rot (Don Ferrin, LSU, Bugwood.org) CC BY 3.0
Bacteria enter plants through wounds and natural openings and move to the xylem, where they reproduce, clogging veins and killing the plant.
Managing potato brown rot Chemical treatments are ineffective against potato brown rot, and serious infections require soil solarization, so prevention is your best bet. These tips can help prevent potato brown rot in your garden:
Back in the 1920s, Rudolph Boysen started crossing various cane fruits. He used blackberries, dewberries, loganberries, and raspberries to create a hybrid. It didn’t grow well, and he abandoned the idea. Those canes were rescued by Walter Knott, of Knott’s Berry Farm fame, a few years later. The rest, as they say, is history.  Boysenberry bramble (Baybay 1901) CC BY-SA 4.0 You generally won’t find boysenberries in stores because they are so juicy and thin-skinned that they start leaking delicious juice within a day or two of being picked. But boysenberries are easy to grow and provide extra-large, sweet-tart treats all summer.
Please note that “thornless” is not a guarantee. Thornless varieties generally have fewer thorns than their cousins. And thornlessness can be genetic, hormonal, or created in a lab. Genetically thornless boysenberry plants will stay that way. The others may not. Propagating boysenberries Like other hybrid plants, boysenberries are not grown from seed. You can try, but you are unlikely to get an edible boysenberry. Boysenberries are best grown in USDA Hardiness Zones 5-9, though you may be able to manage in Zone 4. They prefer full sun, soil pH of 6.0-7.0, and good drainage. Boysenberry roots are perennial and will fill spread using underground stems called rhizomes, so plan accordingly. You can buy dormant bare-root boysenberry plants. You can also use root cuttings, root division, and tip layering. As with any new plant, put your boysenberry into quarantine before adding it to your landscape. Caring for boysenberry plants Boysenberry plants only need to be fed when planted and again each spring. Like other brambles, you can let them grow wild or train them up a fence, stock panel, or trellis. Training your boysenberries makes pruning and harvesting a lot easier. When your boysenberries have entered dormancy, prune first-year primocanes, leaving 5-7 per plant. Cut lateral branches back to no more than 12 inches. This pruning will reduce the risk of pests and disease while making room for the next batch of canes. If you live in a cold climate, cover your boysenberries with a thick blanket of straw in winter and use a dark mulch. If you live in a warmer region, apply light-colored mulch and provide a little afternoon shade.
Good cultural practices go a long way toward keeping your boysenberry plants healthy. How about a boysenberry pie? Or maybe some boysenberry jam? It may be as close as your backyard!
Tomatoes seem to be the only plants affected by pepino mosaic naturally. Scientists have mechanically infected potatoes and eggplants in the lab, though pepper plants seem immune for now.  Tomato infected with pepino mosaic (Goldlocki) CC BY-SA 3.0 DEED Pepino mosaic may not wipe out your crop, but the flavor and appearance of your tomatoes will suffer. And these plants are more likely to contract other viral diseases.
Pepino mosaic symptoms Fruit marbling and other discolorations are the most common symptoms of pepino mosaic. Leaf blistering and interveinal chlorosis may also occur, as well as yellow angular leaf spots, brown stem streaks, and leaf and stem death. The top of the plant may look stunted or oddly clustered. You may also see dark spots on young leaves near the top of the plant. Lower leaves may look scorched. Blossoms may turn brown and fall off. Pepino mosaic is easily mistaken for chemical overspray and tomato brown rugose. These symptoms generally do not appear for two or three weeks after infection. Pepino mosaic spreads rapidly because infected plants remain in place. Pepino mosaic management Pepino mosaic is spread primarily on contaminated tools, shoes, and clothing. Infected seeds may also carry the disease. Unfortunately, bumblebees can also transport pepino mosaic. You can’t do anything about the bees, but you can prevent pepino mosaic in your garden with these good cultural practices:
Before planting parsnips, you should know about parsnip canker. Carrots, dill, parsley, and sunflowers may also get this disease.  Healthy parsnips (Jeffery Martin) Public Domain Parsnip canker is an infection of Itersonilia perplexans and several other fungi that can reduce your crop by as much as 80%. But it is preventable.
Symptoms of parsnip canker Like other cankers, symptoms include dark, mushy areas on parsnip crowns and shoulders. These areas may be black, brown, orange, or purple and typically have pale green halos. Lesions may also occur on the underside of young leaves. Parsnip canker management When growing parsnips, many gardeners mound soil over the crown as the plant grows in a practice known as hilling. Hilling in the UK has been shown to expose pathogens to predators, reducing the chance of infection. Unfortunately, this practice spread pathogens to neighboring plants in Australian gardens. I suspect it has something to do with temperature and humidity differences, but I am only guessing. Other steps you can take to prevent parsnip canker include the following:
Foliar sprays of fixed copper may help treat the disease if applied early enough. And you can cut out the bad bits and enjoy the rest of the root. Parsnips have a lot to offer, and they are easy to grow. The ones you might find in the grocery store are never as sweet and crisp as those you can grow in your yard. As your raspberry and blackberry seasons wind down and you begin your winter preparations, watch for signs of raspberry crown borers, also known as blackberry crown borers (Pennisetia marginata).  Delicious fresh raspberries! (Kate Russell) The first signs of infestation include withering and wilting. Close inspection of the crown at soil level may yield a small hole surrounded by frass that looks like sawdust. There are no biological or organic treatments against this pest. Commercial growers often use Diazinon to combat these pests, but that chemical is highly toxic to bees (and it probably isn’t good for us, either). The more you know about raspberry crown borers, the better equipped you will be to prevent infestation. Is it a moth or a wasp? It all starts with what looks like a wasp. This type of clearwing moth has a one-inch wingspan. It is black with four or more stripes around the abdomen. The antennae are feathery and curled at the tips, the wings have longitudinal bars, and the legs are yellow. First-year larvae are one-half to one-inch long, while second-year larvae may reach an inch-and-a-half long.  Adult raspberry crown borer with egg (University of Georgia Plant Pathology Archive) CC BY 3.0  Raspberry crown borer larva (University of Georgia Plant Pathology Archive) CC BY 3.0 Raspberry crown borer lifecycle
These fascinating (and destructive) parasites go through a two-year cycle that starts with females laying up to 140 rust-colored eggs on the underside of leaflets in late summer. Take a peek and extermigate any eggs you see. Larvae create tiny blistered hibernaculum (“winter tents”) in the base of the crown, where they are safe from winter weather and predators. As temperatures rise, larvae burrow galleries throughout the crown, feeding as they go. In some cases, these larvae emerge as adults at the end of the summer. They often remain in these protected galleries through a second winter, causing even more damage. Keeping plants healthy and monitoring for eggs and entry holes are the best preventative tools. Any plants infested with raspberry crown borers should be removed and destroyed. |
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