Also known as the potato tuber moth or tobacco splitworm, potato tuberworms (Phthorimaea operculella) love to feed on members of the nightshade family, such as eggplants, tomatoes, peppers, and tobacco, but they prefer potatoes. The potato tuber moth is unique in the moth world in that her ovipositor (egg-laying organ) has sensors that can pick up chemical signals given off by potato plants. [If you are really into this sort of thing, the chemical signal is an amino acid called L-glutamic acid. But don’t worry, there won’t be a quiz.] She doesn’t necessarily have to be on the potato plant to lay her eggs, either, but you can be sure she will be close. These moths are usually seen an hour or two after sunset. Potato tuberworm description Potato tuberworms are the larval form of a small grayish-brown moth. The adult moth has a 1/2-inch wingspan and dark gray or black markings. At rest, both sets of fringed wings are held close to the body, giving them a slender appearance. Females moths have a distinctive “X” pattern on their forewings when at rest. Eggs are very tiny, oval, and yellowish white. The larvae, or caterpillars, are just under 1/2 an inch in length, and their color can vary, depending on what they are eating, from white or gray, to tan, pink, or yellowish. Larvae have a brown head and prothoracic shield. [A prothoracic shield is the segment just behind the head.] Cocoons are 1/2 an inch long and pale colored. Potato tuberworm lifecycle Each female potato tuber moth will lay over 200 eggs in her short lifetime. Those eggs are normally laid next to a leaf vein, near a bud, or under a stem, though they can also be found in the soil near a host plant. In five days, those eggs will hatch. For the next two weeks, the larvae will eat as much as they can. The way they decide where to feed may surprise you. This is not a simple case of taking bites out of whatever is at hand. Nay, nay! Our newly hatched potato tuberworm larva will spend the first 5 to 15 minutes of its life walking around on its home plant. As it walks, it attaches a silk thread to the plant every few steps, turning this way and that way, taking an occasional bite as it meanders. If it has hatched on an unacceptable plant, the larva will walk faster and ultimately leave the plant altogether, until it can find an acceptable host plant.
Young potato tuberworm larvae might burrow through leaves and stems, causing stunting and reduced crop size. As feeding and tunneling continue, the tuberworms head for their favorite food: your potatoes. Webbing and frass (bug poop) deposits can be seen at entry holes, normally found at the eyes of a potato. While other pesky tunneling insects, such as wireworms and leaf miners, tend to keep their tunnels neat and tidy, potato tuberworms are slobs. Those dark tunnels are filled with excrement.
Controlling potato tuberworms Row covers can be used to prevent adult moths from laying eggs on your potato plants. The deeper your potatoes are growing, the more difficult it is for tuberworms to get to them, so selecting a deep growing variety is helpful if you know tuberworms are around. Also, avoid furrow irrigation, which can cause cracks in the soil. These cracks are used as elevators to lower soil levels by tuberworms. Research has shown that insecticides do not prevent potato tuberworm infestations when erosion or soil cracks are present, or when potatoes are left in the ground longer than is necessary. Finally, harvest potatoes as soon as they are ready. Infested potatoes should be thrown in the trash and not added to the compost pile. Heavy infestations can be treated with spinosad. Potato psyllids (Bactericera cockerelli) are disease-carrying, life-sucking plant lice. These invasive pests also feed on tomatoes and other members of the nightshade family, along with several other garden plants. Potato psyllid description Potato psyllids are tiny. When I say tiny, I mean that an adult potato psyllid could stretch out comfortably across the edge of an American nickel, without dangling. If you get close enough, preferably with a hand lens or magnifying glass, you would see that they look like miniature cicadas. Potato psyllid adults are black, with a white band across the first abdominal segment and an inverted “V” on the final segment. They have clear wings that are held roof-like over the body when not flying or jumping. [They jump a lot.] Potato psyllid lifecycle Potato psyllids start out as eggs. Each female lays approximately 200 eggs, each of which hatches in 6 to 10 days. Those eggs look like microscopic footballs held to the underside of leaves with short stalks. [Do not mistake those short-stalked eggs to the longer stalked, beneficial lacewing eggs.] After those eggs hatch into green, fringed nymphs, they look more like whiteflies or soft scale insects. Then, they go through five developmental stages, also known as molts or instars. Under ideal conditions, all that growing can be completed in less than two weeks. Damage caused by potato psyllids
If sucking sugary plant fluids wasn’t problem enough, potato psyllids cause other problems, too. For one thing, as nymphs feed, they release a toxin that can kill young transplants. This toxin also causes upward curling of leaflets closest to the stem on the upper portions of the plant. This condition is known as “psyllid yellows” or “vein greening”. The characteristic yellowing usually starts along leaf margins and then moves inward, turning purple in some cases. As this condition worsens, nodes [bumps where leaves emerge] become enlarged and closer together, rosetted clusters of leaves emerge from axillary (or lateral) buds, and aerial tubers begin to form. Aerial tubers grow at the end of aboveground stems, as opposed to underground stems, the way proper potatoes grow. When this pest feeds on tomato plants, it can cause no fruit production or overproduction of poor quality fruits. Eventually, the once green, bushy potato plant looks more like a pitiful yellow Christmas tree. [If chlorosis is spotty and leaf rosetting is not present, the problem is more likely to be calico virus.] If potato psyllids are removed from the plant, the condition will stop progressing. Potato psyllids are also carriers of another condition, known as zebra chip. Zebra chip is a bacterial disease that causes potatoes to store sugar, rather than starch. That might sound like a great idea for a new dessert food, but the presence of sugars cause ugly brown lines across the length of the potato. When cooked, these brown lines turn black, hence the name. This condition reduces crop size by 20 to 50%. Healthy appearing potatoes from plants affected by zebra chip are more likely to sprout while in storage. Managing potato psyllids You can’t control potato psyllids if you don’t know where they are. The first step to managing potato psyllids is to use yellow sticky traps. You can buy these at any garden center, or you can make your own with some yellow paperboard and sticky barrier goo. You should also inspect the undersides of leaves, looking for nymphs. While you’re at it, you should probably check the underside of any nearby bean or pepper plants, as these may also become infested. In commercially grown potato fields, where potato psyllid is known to occur, a type of systemic neonicotinoid neurotoxin, called imidacloprid, is applied. [While not yet noted in California, resistance to imidacloprid has been documented in Texas.] Organic growers, like myself, use spinosad. Because potato psyllids are not native to California, our local team of predators, which include lady beetles, lacewing larvae, and minute pirate bugs, have not been very effective at controlling this pest. Not yet, anyway. Aphids on potatoes? Well, why not? They’re on everything else! Potatoes are susceptible to two different types of aphids: green peach aphids and potato aphids. Today, we will learn about potato aphids. Originally from North America, these pests are now found everywhere potatoes are grown. And potatoes are not their only food of choice. Your cabbages, tomatoes, eggplant, peaches, and peppers are also at risk, along with many other food crops. Potato aphid description Potato aphids (Macrosiphum euphorbiae) can be either green or pink, with a dark dorsal stripe, and they tend to be larger, with longer legs, than most other aphid species. When feeding on tomatoes, potato aphids become distinctly red. They have the same long-legged, soft, pear-shaped wingless body of other aphids. As populations boom, or food becomes otherwise scarce, some aphids will develop wings with which to fly to new feeding grounds. Potato aphid lifecycle
Potato aphids, like other aphids, are phenomenally prolific. A single female aphid can produce 600 billion descendants in a single season. Aphids reproduce both sexually and asexually. When females produce offspring without male intervention (parthenogenesis), the offspring are born live and significantly smaller than their co-authored siblings. When reproduction involves a male counterpart, offspring are laid as eggs that overwinter in nearby weeds, or on other host plants. Adult aphids molt four times, leaving behind telltale white skins. Damage caused by potato aphids Aphid feeding is usually first seen as deformed leaves. As aphids feed, they damage plant tissue and disrupt the balance of growth hormones. This can reduce or eliminate crop size, and it can kill young plants. These sap sucking pests tend to cluster together, piercing plant tissue and sucking out the sap. They also poop out sugary honeydew, which attracts protective, disease-carrying ants, and creates habitat for sooty mold. Potato aphid feeding can certainly weaken plants, but the real problem is that these aphids carry and transmit a number of viral diseases, such as cucumber mosaic, lettuce mosaic, bearded iris mosaic, narcissus yellow stripe virus, tulip breaking virus, potato virus Y, beet mild yellowing virus, beet yellows virus, alfalfa mosaic, and potato leafroll disease. Plants infected with potato leafroll disease will produce potatoes with a network of browning phloem tissue, called net necrosis, that is very unappetizing. Once a potato plant is infected with leafroll, it and three plants in all directions should be removed to prevent further spread of the disease. Controlling potato aphids The battle against aphids in the garden never ends. It starts by monitoring plants regularly for signs of infestation. Potato aphids tend to prefer the lower portions of plants, the undersides of leaves, and around new buds. You can dislodge aphids with a powerful stream of water from the garden hose, but it is practically impossible to get every single aphid off your potato plants in this way, and it only takes one aphid to start the whole process over again. Insecticidal soaps can be used with better results, but you have to make sure you wet every surface of the plant. Personally, I wipe them off whenever I see them. I like to think it slows them down a little, if nothing else. The next step in controlling potato aphids is to remove nearby plants that might harbor these pests. This means keeping weeds away from potato patch. Malva, penny cress, and various mustards, in particular, can act as early season host plants for this pest. Luckily, lady beetles, lacewings, syrphid or hoverfly larvae, and parasitic wasps will all help control potato aphid populations. That’s assuming you haven’t used broad spectrum pesticides and wiped out your helpers. What's eating your potatoes? Rain beetles only occur in California, Oregon, and southernmost Washington. While they live here all year, rain beetles can only be seen after the year’s first big rain, or at spring’s first big snow melt. Even then, you will probably only see the males. Rain beetle description
Rain beetles are scarabs, making them cousins to rose chafers, hoopla beetles, and Junebugs. Rain beetles (genus Pleocoma) are robust, shiny beetles. They are over one inch long, dark brown to reddish brown, with fuzzy undersides. [The word ‘Pleocoma’ is Greek for ‘abundant hair’.] That hair can range from black and brown to yellow. Rain beetles have clubbed antennae with 11 segments, which is more than any other scarab beetle. Being filled with eggs, female rain beetles are much larger than the males. Once those eggs hatch, 3/4-inch long, C-shaped, creamy white larvae begin feeding and burrowing. Damage caused by rain beetles Adult rain beetles do not eat. They have no functional mouths or digestive systems, so they do not cause any damage to the garden. Their larvae, however, are another story altogether. Rain beetle larvae feed on the roots of fruit, nut, and ornamental trees and shrubs, and grasses, along with fungi and other organic matter. Rain beetle larvae seem to prefer the roots of apple, pear, and other orchard trees. Rain beetle behavior Rain beetle larvae do not dig through the soil, per se. Instead, they move through it by eating it and pooping it out. Burrowing up to 3 inches each day, a rain beetle larva can be found anywhere in the top 8- to 10-feet of soil. Adult rain beetles use powerful legs and a V-shaped scoop found on top of their head to push their way through the soil. Male rain beetles generally emerge at dusk, though they can be seen flying around in the day, especially if it is raining. Males fly low to the the ground, looking for mates. Male rain beetles are relatively good flyers, though they will bang into your windows at night, being attracted to lights and bodies of water. Flightless females stay in the ground, emitting a pheromone that attracts the males. This pheromone has a lemony scent that is so strong even people can smell it. Rain beetle lifecycle Rain beetles are long lived bugs. From egg, to larva, to pupa, to adult can take 12 years. [Most beetle species only live one year.] That being said, by the time you see a rain beetle, it is probably only hours or minutes from death. Male rain beetles only store enough energy as fat from their more youthful stages to fly for a couple of hours, looking for mates, before dying. After mating, female rain beetles burrow a spiral-shaped tunnel, as much as 10-feet below the soil surface, laying 40 to 50 eggs as she goes. In 2 months, the eggs hatch and the larvae begin feeding. Rain beetles were once found throughout California and Oregon. Now, they are generally only found in pockets of foothill and mountain habitats. Being flightless and ground dwelling, female rain beetles have been wiped out everywhere urban development has occurred. Rain beetle controls Since rain beetles spend nearly all of their lives underground, chemical controls are ineffective. For the most part, rain beetles are more of a nuisance than a significant pest, though you can catch males in a butterfly net, if they really bother you. Not counting gardeners, there are several types of mammals that may turn up in your garden. Some can be helpful, others can be a royal pain. Mammals are warm-blooded and more or less intelligent. This can make excluding them from certain areas of the garden problematic. In most cases, there are ways to work around pesky mammals in the garden, without losing your mind or getting in trouble with local law enforcement. Speaking of law enforcement, before you go trapping, shooting, poisoning, or otherwise dispatching wildlife, you need to track down your local laws and obey them. The low level squirrel feud can turn into a legal nightmare if improper methods are used against them. It’s not worth it - regardless of how tempting it may be when they take your last juicy pears for the umpteenth time! So, let’s see which animals might end up in the garden and how to protect your plants against them. Bats There are three major types of bats found in North America: leaf-nosed bats, vesper bats, and free-tailed bats. These bats are primarily insectivores, capturing insect pests, such as moths, wasps, flies, mosquitoes, in flight, or capturing beetles, ants, and other insects off of leaves or from the ground. This makes bats welcome guests in the garden, though they will sometimes eat ripe fruit. [Who can blame them?] You can attract bats to your garden for the evening shift by installing a bat house. Deer Deer are the bane of gardeners wherever they are found. These animals can leap small buildings in a single bound. Oh, wait, wrong story. But deer can wipe out an orchard, garden, or landscape, between feeding and trampling, in short order. Really high fencing (and I mean 7- or 8-feet high) might block deer. If your garden is on a slope, you will need fencing that is 10- or 11-feet high! Loud, scaring devices and various repellants can also be used to try and block these determined garden pests, but the effectiveness of these methods doesn’t last very long. Mice In California, we have deer mice, house mice, and meadow mice, also known as voles. Deer mice and house mice are mostly seed eaters that can wipe out a garden crop before it even starts. Voles are herbivores that will eat your bulbs, tubers, artichoke, beets, Brussels sprouts, celery, cauliflower, sweet potatoes, lettuces, tomatoes, turnips, cabbages… well, you get the idea. If that weren’t enough, voles will also chew the bark off your fruit and nut trees. While poisons do kill mice, those poisoned mice can then be eaten by other wildlife, or your pets, so I urge you to avoid poisons. And those sticky boards, well, those are just cruel. Also, as the animal struggles to escape the glue, they tend to urinate and defecate and those materials then get slung around as the animal continues to struggle. Instead, good old fashioned mouse traps are still your best bet. They are usually an instant death and generally not very messy. Since all mice can carry hantaviruses, be sure to wear non-fabric gloves whenever handling mice, materials mice may have urinated on, or mice droppings. Also, be sure to thoroughly disinfect any areas inhabited by mice. Moles and shrews Shrews and moles may look like mice with deformed noses, but they are not rodents. They are more closely related to hedgehogs. There are 13 shrew species and 4 moles species in California, and they spend most of their lives underground, digging burrows and eating. For their size, shrews have voracious appetites, eating 1/2 to 2 times their body weight each day in worms, insects, and other invertebrates. They will also eat seeds, roots, and bulbs, but mice and pocket gophers are usually the culprits in those cases. Trapping is the most effective control measure, though chemical repellants and noisy, scaring devices can provide some protection. Opossums Opossums may look prehistoric, but they can do your garden a good service. While they will sometimes eat fresh fruit and vegetables, opossums much prefer rotting produce, ticks, slugs and snails. In my book, that makes them a beneficial visitor. If an occasional tomato is lost, well, it seems a fair price. Pocket gophers Pocket gophers spend most of their time underground, digging burrows that lead to many of your garden and ornamental plants. We have 5 gopher species in California and they all feed on roots from below. They will also grab a tasty plant and pull it below ground to enjoy in relative safety. In a single night, one pocket gopher can destroy an entire garden row. Gopher traps are your best control measure. Rabbits, hares, and pikas Contrary to popular belief, rabbits are not rodents. They are lagomorphs. There, I said it. Now, what are pikas? And what’s the difference between rabbits and hares? Well, rabbits are smaller than hares, and hares, also known as jackrabbits, have longer legs and ears. Also, hares change color with the seasons, while rabbits do not. As for pikas, you probably won’t ever see them because they tend to live at elevations above the tree line, but they are cute. So are rabbits and hares - until they decimate your salad garden or other crops. Keeping rabbits and hares out of the garden is an unending battle. Since they can burrow, fencing alone is not enough. Raised beds with an exclusionary hardware cloth base may be your only real solution if these pests are feeding on your garden. Raccoons Raccoons are smart. And when they are not attacking your chickens or eating your pet’s dinner, they are probably busy eating your garden fruits, berries, nuts, corn, or other grain. Raccoons are attracted to compost piles, trash cans, and bird feeders. Raccoons may also try using your house, chimney, or garage as a nesting site. While young raccoons are adorable, these nests mean the presence of urine, feces, and disease-carrying parasites. Also, unlike opossums, raccoons tend to carry several diseases, such as roundworm, distemper, and rabies. Raccoons are best controlled with live traps. As a furbearer, raccoon pelts have value, so you can probably find someone who will be happy to discharge a trapped raccoon. Otherwise, you can discretely relocate your visitor somewhere more appropriate, and less destructive. Just be sure to check on your legal obligations before you get yourself in trouble. Rats Wherever you live, you probably have rats. The two most common types of rats are Norway, or sewer, rats and roof rats. These pests are filthy, destructive, and difficult to get rid of. Rats carry diseases, chew through electrical wires, and can damage your home, along with your garden. Roof rats prefer avocados, berries, citrus, and nuts, while Norway rats prefer meat and grain. Before you protect your garden against these pests, be sure that there are no points of entry to your home. Once your house is secure, then you can start trapping outdoors in earnest. Skunks There are spotted skunks and striped skunks. In either case, it is a good idea to stay at least 10 feet away from the back end of a distressed skunk. [By the way, skunks have terrible eyesight. If you find yourself closer than you would like, be very, very still, or move away very, very slowly. A startled skunk is an unpleasant experience.] Both skunk species will eat pretty much anything: garbage, compost, pet food, worms, fruit, berries, mushrooms, beetles and other insects, lizards, frogs, snakes, and even the occasional bird egg. Since skunks are the most common carrier of rabies in California, along with distemper, canine hepatitis, leptospirosis, and several other diseases, getting them out of your garden (or out from under your porch) is a good idea. This is best done by professionals. Very often, your local Animal Control Office will remove skunks for free. Once a skunk family is removed, it is important to block whatever area, or remove whatever feature, attracted them in the first place. Otherwise, you will just get a new skunk. If you are unfortunate enough to be bit by a skunk, see your doctor right away. Seriously. Squirrels There are two major types of squirrels: tree squirrels and ground squirrels. If I didn’t have dogs, I would probably have nothing to show for all my work in the garden because of squirrels. I was surprised to learn that they will eat oranges, tomatoes, blueberries, pears, and more. Adding insult to injury, squirrels will, like birds, often only take a bite or two before moving on to the next delectable piece of fruit, leaving a trail of potential disease behind them everywhere they go. Hardware cloth and chicken wire are the only reliable barriers to squirrel feeding, though I have had some success with a repellant called Bobbex-R. Finally, our pets.
We love our pets. There’s no denying that cats and dogs have a very special place in our hearts. That being said, we do not want cat feces next to our lettuces, or dogs digging up rows of beans or tomatoes. As much as your cat may love being outdoors, researchers at UC Davis have demonstrated that your cat is perfectly happy and actually safer kept indoors. Being stealthy predators, cats can decimate local bird, reptile, and amphibian populations, and we need those other creatures more than your cat needs time outside. Dogs can be trained to provide several beneficial services in the garden. My two dogs will chase squirrels, raccoons, rats, mice, opossum, jays, and cabbageworm butterflies out of my garden. Since most of my gardening is now done in raised beds, I don’t have to worry about the dogs running through them. While we need to learn how to live and let live, there is nothing wrong with protecting what is yours. This is especially true for disease carrying pests. In some cases, it is simply easier to fence in your crops with netting and tree cages. For those mammals in the garden that must be killed, please use the fastest, most painless method. How do you manage mammals in your garden? Pests, predators, and pollinators, whatever role they play in the garden, insects are everywhere. Or, are they? Insect evolution Most of the world’s insects evolved in tandem with flowering plants (angiosperms). The majority of insects are small, but a few of those early insects were huge by today’s standards. Dragonflies, known as predatory griffinflies, had wingspans of over 2 feet, and cockroaches were the size of house cats. This was due, in part, to higher oxygen levels in the atmosphere. [31-35% oxygen then, 21% today - don’t panic, though, these levels have been fluctuating since Earth was formed. Changing oxygen levels were not the only reason for some insects getting smaller. Research has demonstrated that the evolution of insect-eating birds, around 50 million years ago, also played a big role in this change. As bird (and bat) predators started feeding on insects, those prey animals had to become more mobile, harder to see, and less delicious to survive. Today, insects are facing the biggest threat to their existence - us. Recent studies show an alarming decrease in insect populations around the globe. Today, we will be learning about different types of insects, the benefits they provide, the problems they face, and ways we can help. Insect characteristics Insects are spineless, 6-legged, armor-plated creatures with three-part bodies, compound eyes, and antennae. To put those characteristics in more scientific terms, insects are invertebrate hexapods with a chitinous exoskeleton. The word ‘insect’ comes to us from the Latin word insectum, which means ‘with a divided body’. An insect’s body consists of the head, thorax, and abdomen. The legs and wings attach to the thorax. Insects have two types of eyes: simple and compound. Simple eyes (ocelli) are a single lens that can see clearly. Most insects have three simple eyes on top of their head. Compound eyes are those bulging eyes we can easily see. Insects’ compound eyes can have dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of lenses, called facets. Insects represent between 50 and 90% of all living things on Earth, with over one million named species, and an estimated 4 to 10 million unnamed species. Cousin to spiders and crustaceans, insects come in an astounding array of shapes, sizes, and colors. A bug by any other name All bugs are insects, but not all insects are bugs. The word ‘bug’ only refers to true bugs (Hemiptera). True bugs all share piercing, sucking mouthparts that may be used on plants or other insects. There are approximately 80,000 different types of true bugs worldwide, along with 12,000 ant species, 20,000 bee species, and 400,000 types of beetles. Insects are first classified as winged (Pterygota) or wingless (Apterygota), though not all winged insects can fly. Winged insects are further classified by when and where those wings develop. True flies, bees, fleas, ants, beetles, and butterflies and moths go through a complete metamorphosis, with the wings developing inside the insect during a pupal stage. These insects are in the Endopterygota order. Insects whose wings develop outside of the body, as with dragonflies, lice, mantids, and earwigs, it is considered an incomplete metamorphosis and these insects are in the Exopterygota order. Insect lifecycle Most insects hatch from eggs. Rigid exoskeletons are shed in a series of molts, as an insect grows. Some baby insects, such as praying mantis, look like miniature adults, while other insects, such as the Monarch butterfly, go through a complete, 4-stage metamorphosis that includes a pupal stage. While other insects have a 3-stage metamorphosis, in which there is no pupal stage, but a series of nymphal stages. Pests, parasites and pollinators Insects are profoundly important components of an environment. They aerate the soil, eat pests, pollinate one-third of all crops (by volume), feed local wildlife (and domestic chickens!), and recycle natural materials into forms usable by plants. Insects play a major role in the creation off topsoil. Insects are also eaten as food by 80% of the world’s nations. Insects can also carry disease, destroy crops, and damage buildings. Insect controls Initially, chemical insecticides were seen as the first line of defense against unwanted insects. Because many insects are able to develop a tolerance to those dangerous chemicals (and we cannot), other methods of control are being explored. Very often, beneficial insects, such as parasitic wasps, and other natural predators, such as birds, are encouraged or imported into an area to control harmful insects. These integrated pest management methods reduce our reliance on chemicals and increase local biodiversity. Declining insect populations
We have been so focused on killing insects off that we didn’t notice, at first, when their populations started to decline, or by how much. Hard, verifiable population facts are still difficult to come by, but recent research has shown a 45% decline in invertebrate populations worldwide. Now, that figure includes more than just insects, but the news is alarming. One German entomological society has recorded nearly 80% less insect biomass in their studies. Another German study reported a 75% decrease in the total flying insect biomass over a 27 year study on 63 different sites. Now, biomass does not mean number of insects. It also does not tell us which type of insects. It simply tells us the amount of insects by weight. Also, not all sites were studied every year, so please do not take this study to say that ’75% of all insects disappeared over 27 years’, because that’s not what the study claims. What it does tell us is that this is a very real problem. Declining insect populations are the result of many different factors:
The food web ties all living things together. As insect populations fall, so do bird, bat, fish, and amphibian populations. European ornithologists (bird experts) point to declining insect populations as a fundamental reason behind 80% less partridges and turtledove, and 50% less nightingales currently found in the French countryside. In the past 30 years, over half of all Europe’s farmland birds have disappeared, and we have to assume that similar results are occurring locally. Call to arms Scientists recognize the critical nature of insect population decline, and the lack of verifiable information. To counteract that lack, large-scale monitoring is being called for, using photos, videos, acoustic recordings, traps, genetic fingerprinting, and citizen science. Automated data collection, worldwide, is the only way we can learn where insects are and how their populations are behaving, and you can help, too. How you can help insects There are many things you can do to help insects at home:
Did you know that earwig mothers clean, protect, and keep their eggs warm? Now you know. While it might be fun to imagine tiny worms wearing hardhats and utility belts, there's nothing cute about carpenterworms. Carpenterworms (Prionoxystus robiniae) are the larval form of a common moth, and they love to burrow into apricot and pear trees. They can also be found in many ornamental trees, such as maple, oak, birch, cottonwood, ash, and willow. Once these pests are inside your trees, they can be difficult to evict. As you can see, this is a robust caterpillar. They can be 1/2 an inch in diameter and 2 to 3 inches long. They have a dark, brownish head and a yellowish white body that is covered with fine hairs. They have sharp, hooked legs on the middle section (thorax) and distinct fleshy legs on the abdomen Damage caused by carpenterworms These wood-boring insects live in galleries, feeding on sapwood. Knowing the signs of infestation can help you get a handle on this pest before the damage becomes irreversible. The galleries created by carpenterworm feeding tend to be vertical, except for the entrance. These entrances are often found in branch crotches and in bark crevices. Tunnels are 1/2 an inch in diameter and 6 to 10 inches long. This tunneling creates points of entry for many other pests and diseases. Adult female carpenterworms seem to prefer areas that are already infested for egg laying, which can result in multiple galleries in the same area of the same tree. All that feeding and tunneling can weaken branches, making them more likely to break in strong winds, or when supporting heavy crops. Branches can also become girdled by carpenterworm feeding and tunneling, and die. Carpenterworm description Adult carpenterworms are large, mottled gray moths that can have a 3-inch wingspan. Their coloration blends with tree bark and lichen. This camouflage makes them difficult to see. If you are able to catch one and spread out its wings, you wing be able to see if you have a male, with orange hind wings, or a female, with off-white hind wings. Carpenterworm lifecycle Because adult female carpenter moths cannot fly very far, they tend to lay their eggs near the gallery where they were feeding. Three to six eggs are laid in the crevices near an existing gallery entrance. Upon hatching, the larvae immediate start boring into the sapwood, leaving small, rectangular entrance holes. As they feed, the larvae will occasionally push sawdust and frass (bug poop) out of the ever-widening entry. The larvae will feed on the sapwood and hardwood until they reach maturity, molting 8 to 31 times over the next 2 to 4 years. Finally, mature pupae wriggle their pudgy selves to the entry hole and create a protective pupal case, which will block the hole until adult moths emerge. In California, this usually occurs May through July. As soon as adults start flying, they mate and the cycle continues. Signs of carpenterworm infestation
The first sign of carpenterworm infestation is stained areas on the trunk. These stains are a combination of sap, sawdust, and frass. You may also see pupal cases sticking 2/3rds of the way out of the tree. Since the stained areas and branch dieback may also be caused by clearwing moths/currant borers, flatheaded borers, bark beetles, and longhorned borers, it is important to identify the pest before trying to control the problem. Carpenterworm controls Healthy trees are better able to protect themselves, so start by planting trees in the right location, at the proper depth, with regular fertilization and irrigation. Because these caterpillars are already protected by the tree, insecticides do not work. There are a couple of specific nematodes, Steinernema feltiae or S. carpocapsae, that have been very successful at controlling carpenterworm larvae. Before you place your order, however, make sure that these are exactly the type of beneficial nematodes you are buying. Any other variety will be ineffective against carpenterworms. And be sure to follow the package directions exactly, or you will have wasted your money. Small infestations can sometimes be controlled by poking long, sharp, flexible wires into the galleries and skewering the caterpillars. This is tricky because you really can’t see if you killed them or not. The only way to really know is to clear all the frass and other debris away from the area and mark the spot with some paint. Then, check the area every week for signs of frass. If frass and sawdust are seen, you missed and the caterpillar is still alive and busy feeding and burrowing. Heavy infestations are dangerous and should be left to a professional arborist. This is because tree branches that are compromised this badly are very likely to fall on you. Since none of us are exempt from the laws of physics, and heavy branches can paralyze or kill you, stay away from them, and call an expert. This winter, take a few minutes each week to inspect your trees for signs of frass and sawdust, or pupal cases, and cut those cute little, hardhat wearing pests off at the knees. Glass snails, such as this whimsical piece by GlassBorisov, are a delightful way to add art and color to houseplants and your garden. The same is generally not true of real snails. Yesterday morning, after our first rain of the year, I noticed a snail trail. Snail trails are pretty normal in most gardens, but this one ended with a flat-bodied snail I’d never seen before. Introducing, the glass-snail family (Oxychilidae). Glass-snails get their name because their shells are translucent. Looking closely at my discovery, I could see the snail body through the shell! Glass-snails are land snails that breathe air. Unlike marine snails, which breath using a single gill, land snails have evolved a single, simple lung. Most glass-snails are omnivores. They eat everything: live plants, dead plants, dead animals, insects, poop, other slugs and snails (and their eggs), sowbugs, and earthworms. Sorting out glass snails Specific characteristics are used when comparing different snail species, including height, width, number of whorls, and the umbilicus. The umbilicus is the snail’s bellybutton. It is the tiny opening at the center of the whorls on the underside of the snail’s shell. Only three glass snails are found in California, at this time: cellar snails, garlic snails, and Drapernaud’s snail. [I'm not sure if my guest is a cellar or Drapernaud's glass-snail, but I'll keep you posted.] Cellar glass-snails Cellar glass-snails (Oxychilus cellarius) have shiny, translucent yellowish-brown shells are just under 1/2 an inch wide, 1/6 of an inch tall, with 5-1/2 to 6 whorls. The umbilicus is very narrow. The snail itself is bluish-gray, with small brown freckles and a groove that runs along each side of the foot Garlic snail The garlic glass-snail (Oxychilus alliarius) gets its Latin name, a twist on the onion family (Allium), because they emit a garlic odor when disturbed. Originally from the Netherlands, Great Britain, Ireland, Poland, and the Czech Republic, the garlic snail has spread its range to include Columbia, Latvia, and California. Garlic snails are reddish or greenish brown, and the snail is blackish blue. The shell is 1/4 of an inch in diameter, a little more than 1/8 of an inch high, with 4 or 4-1/2 slightly convex whorls. The umbilicus is 1/6 of the overall diameter, and the whorls are coiled more narrowly than cellar glass-snails. Drapernaud’s glass-snail
Drapernaud’s glass-snail (Oxychilus draparnaudi) is larger than the other glass snails, being slightly more than 1/2 an inch in diameter, and the shell is a waxy yellowish-brown on top and somewhat lighter underneath. The body is a dark blue and gray color. Drapernaud’s glass-snail is carnivorous. How to control snails Unless you are enjoying artistic versions of this common pest, managing snails is an ongoing task. It comes as no surprise that these snails’ peak breeding season in the Bay Area is autumn, just before our rainy season begins. The first step in snail management is to inspect and quarantine new plants. A single snail can lay over 400 eggs. Putting new plants into isolation for a couple of days, with a beer trap nearby, can prevent years of frustration. Once infestation occurs, try to reduce hiding places, such as boards, stones, and other debris. Regularly applying slug and snail bait, and using beer traps, can take a big bite out of the snail population, before they start taking bites out of your plants. Going outside with a flashlight at night, you can catch them feeding - handpick them and feed them to your chickens or dispose of them in the trash. Did you know that snails have a powerful sense of smell? Now you know. Mealybugs have been around for a long time. There is a relatively new, invasive mealybug that may be attacking your grapes.
Traditionally, grape growers have had to watch for grape mealybugs, obscure mealybugs, and long-tailed mealybugs. These species generally do not cause significant problems, as long as their populations do not get out of hand. They are easy to recognize because of the clusters of gray, soft-bodied females gathering on the underside of leaves and in nooks and crannies. The invasive vine mealybug is another problem altogether. Vine mealybugs (Planococcus ficus) are native to the Mediterranean areas of North and South Africa and Europe. Vine mealybugs were first seen in California in the mid-1990s and had spread to 17 California counties by 2011. Vine mealybugs are now considered a significant pest of grapes, figs, avocado, apple, bananas, mango, citrus, date palm, and several ornamental plants. Vine mealybugs are difficult to see because they spend most of their lives protected under the bark, on roots, and around developing buds. Only during spring, when they become active again, can you sometimes see them moving away from the roots and trunk and into the leaf canopy. By summer, vine mealybugs may be found under the bark of first- and second-year canes, among fruit clusters, and under leaves. Sometimes, ants can be seen providing the mealybugs with transportation to their summer feeding grounds. Vine mealybug description Vine mealybug females are 1/8 of an inch long, pink, oval-shaped, and covered with a white, mealy wax that also covers filaments (spines) along the sides and posterior end. These filaments are shorter than those seen on other mealybugs, and there are no long tail filaments. Like their cousins, vine mealybugs have a segmented body. Males are tiny, winged, and you’ll probably never see them, unless you have a 30x microscope. They are 0.7 inches long, amber colored, with beaded antennae, one pair of wings, and 4 tail filaments that may stick together. It is important to know which mealybugs you are dealing with. If you see mealybugs, try to collect some and place them in a sealed plastic bag, or in a container of alcohol, and take them to your local County Extension Office for identification. This also helps authorities better understand the spread of this invasive pest. Vine mealybug lifecycle In summer, females lay 300 to 700 eggs in the leaves above the fruit in little pouches, called ovisacs. First instar nymphs, called crawlers, are orange and very tiny. During winter, only nymphs are present. They can be found hiding under the bark around the graft union, below the base of spurs, and around pruning wounds. There can be 3 to 7 generations a year. Damage caused by vine mealybugs Vine mealybugs are phloem sap suckers that produce significantly more honeydew than native mealybugs. This honeydew attracts protective, disease-carrying ants and creates a growth medium for sooty mold on fruit clusters. These invasive pests can also carry grapevine leafroll viruses and corky bark disease. Vine mealybugs reproduce at a much faster rate than their native cousins. How to control vine mealybugs Being an invasive pest, vine mealybugs do not have as a many natural predators as their native cousins. Because vine mealybugs are such a serious threat to California grape growers, parasites of these particular mealybugs have been released in the state. This has helped somewhat, but eradication appears to be impossible at this point. Since these beneficial insects are unavailable to the home grower, the best things you can do to protect your vines is to inspect them regularly, especially during spring, monitor and control ant traffic with sticky barriers, and to quarantine new vines and other plants before installing them. Also, sanitize your tools regularly. Vine mealybugs also feed on burclover, malva, black nightshade, sowthistle and lambsquarters, so controlling these weeds can also help prevent infestation. Small, red delta pheromone traps (if you can find them) may also be used in April through June, depending on where you live. Check your trap every 2 weeks through November. The California Extension Office has an excellent male vine mealybug identification information sheet. Protecting your grapevine from vine mealybugs is an important step toward providing your family with fresh, delicious, organic, homegrown grapes. You’ve proba-bly never heard of proba bugs. They are another relatively new pest on the garden scene. And they love artichokes.
Proba bugs (Proba californica) have been around for some time, but they used to prefer coyote brush. Coyote brush is a common native plant found along highways in agricultural areas of California. At some point (around 1997) a proba bug decided to give artichokes a try. From that moment on, proba bugs have become an increasing threat to artichoke plants. So, what do they look like? Proba bug description Adult proba bugs are plain brown and only 0.2 inches long. [That means you could line up 3-1/2 proba bugs across the top of a dime.] Nymphs start out looking like pale yellowish green aphids, except that they move a lot faster than aphids, due to their long legs. During the next to developmental stages (instars) they are reddish-brown, and then they develop light and dark bands on they abdominal area during the final two instars. [I couldn't find any usable photos of proba bug nymphs - sorry!] Proba bug lifecycle Proba bugs are active year round (just a lot slower in winter). As temperatures begin to rise, usually in March, they begin feeding and breeding in earnest. Eggs are laid on artichoke petioles (leaf stems) and hatch within 20 to 30 days. Nymphs go through five instars before reaching adulthood. Damage caused by proba bugs The damage caused by proba bugs is similar to that of lygus bugs, only proba bugs are more aggressive in their feeding habits. Adults and nymphs feed on young artichoke leaves and at the base of developing buds. They feed by piercing the tissue and injecting a toxin that kills plant cells. As the surrounding leaf tissue continues to grow, these punctured areas turn into brown dead spots that dry and fall off, leaving a shot hole appearance. Feeding on the base of flower buds causes the bud [the part we eat] to turn black. Not very appetizing. This phytotoxin also causes stunting and deformed flower buds. Severely affected leaves will be smaller than normal and chlorotic. Controlling proba bugs Until relatively recently, commercial artichoke fields were treated with organophosphates and chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. Use of these neurotoxins is being phased out, so proba bugs are becoming more of a problem. Infested fields can lose 20 to 30% of the harvest to proba bugs. Farmers are now removing the coyote brush near their fields and tilling the crop residue under, in a practice called stumping, to help combat this pest. Natural predators, such as big-eyed bugs, damsel bugs, minute pirate bugs, and spiders all feed on the nymph stage of proba bugs, so avoid using broad spectrum pesticides. You can help protect your artichoke plant by cutting the plant off at ground level, once flower production is done for the year, and monitoring for signs of infestation in March and April. Fire ants are an experience you will never forget. For me, it happened when I was a child, playing with friends. We sat down on the ground to continue our game, I started feeling something tingly, and then, all of a sudden, my legs were on FIRE!!!! I jumped up and tried to rid myself of the horrible burning sensation, but it was several hours before I was comfortable. The burning, itching sensation that comes from being bitten by fire ants is not to be ignored. So, how is it that these tiny insects can cause so much pain? And are they a problem where you live? Types of fire ants There are three basic types of fire ants (and countless variations) found in the U.S.: native southwestern fire ants, red imported fire ants, and their close cousin, the black imported fire ant. Our domestic fire ants are not as aggressive as their South American cousins, and their stings are not as painful. Red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) and black imported fire ants (S. richteri) are extremely aggressive and their stings can be excruciating. Black imported fire ants are currently only found in the Southeastern U.S., and they are similar enough to their red-headed cousins, that we will be focusing on our biggest problem: the red imported fire ant. Originally from Argentina, red imported fire ants are believed to have entered the U.S. in the 1930’s, in Alabama. By 1998, these stinging insects had made their way across the country to California. When the imported species meet our domestic fire ants, the home team loses. Fire ant description Red imported fire ants look like common ants, only bigger. Females are reddish colored. Males are black. Eggs are white and oval-shaped. Within one week, the egg looks more like a larva and the egg casing falls away. The larvae go through four stages (instars) before they reach adulthood. There are castes within a fire ant colony. The queens are the biggest, and then there are two castes of workers: major and minor. Smaller, minor workers tend to stay indoors and care for the brood, while larger, major workers go outside and forage for food. Major workers are twice the size of minor workers. Fire ant colonies Fire ants live in colonies. Since they need water to live, these colonies are generally found near water. Colonies may be found under a sidewalk, near the base of a tree trunk, in electrical equipment, and in and around your home. Colonies in the ground will often mound the soil up 12 to 18 inches. Each colony hosts 100,000 to 500,000 workers and several breeding queens. These queens may live for a few years, while the sterile workers only live a few weeks. If nearby water levels rise, fire ants will build floating islands to protect the colony. Red imported fire ants have developed symbiotic relationships with insects, such as mealybugs, that produce honeydew. As omnivores, fire ants often eat dead animals and insects, fruit, and seeds. Their favorite food, however, is honey, so protect your hives! Harm caused by fire ants Fire ants can ruin more than a child’s game or a picnic. A red imported fire ant colony can make working in the garden nearly impossible. If a fire ant colony feels threatened, it can swarm an area with thousands of angry, stinging insects. These swarms are responsible for killing young livestock, such as rabbits, pigs, and even cattle. [Never restrain an animal or place a playpen near a fire ant colony.] The Stock Island tree snail is believed to have become extinct because of fire ants. Even if nothing in your garden becomes extinct because of fire ants, these pests, along with other ants, can carry diseases that may harm your plants. Fire ant stings A single burning, itching sting can capture your attention for about an hour. After that, the sting turns into a blister that will bother you for 3 or 4 hours. This blister transforms into a pustule that resolves in a couple of days. That’s if you’re lucky enough to only get stung once. If you develop an allergic reaction after a fire ant sting, get to the emergency room right away. If you are not allergic to fire ant stings, wash the area with soap and water and apply a cold compress to reduce the pain and swelling. Antihistamines and topical steroid ointments may also provide some comfort, but nothing will get rid of it completely. It is estimated that 14 million people are stung by red imported fire ants each year in the U.S., and that many of those people will develop an allergic reaction over time. How to control fire ants Luckily, fire ants are susceptible to the same control measures as other ants. Over-the-counter ant bait systems can be placed near the colony. If a severe infestation is present, contact local county pest control agencies by calling the statewide red imported fire ant hotline at 1-888-434-7326. Apparently, high level conflicts attract one another. As much as 75% of a black widow spider’s diet is, you guessed it, red imported fire ants. Other fire ant predators include earwigs, dragonflies, beetles, and other ants. To keep these somewhat beneficial insects alive, it is a good idea to avoid using broad spectrum insecticides. Birds and armadillos also find fire ants to be a tasty snack, but the strangest predator, in my opinion, is the fire ant decapitating fly (Pseudacteon obtusus).
These flies lay an egg on the back portion of a fire ant’s head, where the ant cannot reach it. The egg hatches and the larva starts feeding on the ant’s head, until it falls off. The fly larva enters the fallen head and stays there to pupate. [You can’t make this stuff up.] So, if you see a mound that might be a fire ant colony, be careful! The guava fruit fly is yet another invasive pest that home gardeners need to be aware of. You may have driven through an agricultural inspection station on your way into California, at one time or another. These inspection points, along with those at international ports, and at shipping and postal centers, all work together to prevent infestations of foreign pests. This is a lot easier and cheaper than getting rid of them after they start feeding and breeding in a new area, which may not have native predators. California invasion
First seen in California in 1986, guava fruit flies are a major pest in Southeast Asia. In 2015, 15 guava fruit flies were found in California; 12 in Los Angeles, and one in Orange, San Mateo, and Santa Clara counties. Since a single female can lay hundreds of eggs that hatch and grow to sexual maturity in an astoundingly short period of time, a single fly is all it takes to trigger the need for extensive eradication programs. You can help in the fight against these pests by knowing what they look like and how they live. Guava fruit fly hosts and damage These pests enjoy several host plants other than guava. Common California crops that are threatened by guava fruit flies include black plum, cherry, citrus, peach, and melons. Banana, cashew, coffee, dragon fruit, mango, castor bean, papaya, sandalwood, rose apples, jujubes, bael fruit, sapodilla, and various gourds may also be at risk. Guava fruit flies damage fruit by laying eggs in it. Females have a pointed ovipositor (egg depositor) that pierces the fruit. This provides points of entry for bacterial, fungal, and viral infections. When the eggs hatch, in as little as two days, maggots tunnel through the fruit, feeding and pooping as they go. None of us wants to bite into that. Maggots shed their skins twice over a two week period, depending on temperature, before dropping to the ground to enter a pupal stage. Within 1 to 2 weeks, adults emerge. Two to five weeks later, females are sexually mature. There are several generations each year. Guava fruit fly identification While most fruit flies are quite tiny, the guava fruit fly (Bactrocera correcta) is the same size as the common house fly. There are two major families of fruit fly: Drosophila and Tephritidae. Guava fruit flies are members of the Tephritidae, or peacock fruit fly family. They get that name because of the bright colors they display. It is mostly black, with yellow stripes, with two black spots on its face that can blend into a single band. Wings are clear with a dark line along the edge most of the way around, followed by a second line that continues around to the end of the wing. They look like they have a “T” on their butt, which is actually their abdomen. Research on this pest has only recently begun, so we will have to assume that earlier developmental stages look much like their close cousins, the Oriental fruit fly. This would mean that eggs are white, very small, and tubular, while larvae (maggots) are creamy-white and legless, and pupae are held in a dark, reddish brown cylindrical puparium. [Isn’t that a great word?] The Northwest guava fruit fly (Anastrepha striata) is yet another invasive pest, but from the Americas, rather than Asia. Close cousins to the Oriental fruit fly, they can all be difficult to tell apart without looking closely. Admittedly, capturing a fruit fly can be tricky business. After you’ve done it once, however, you will probably do it again. These creatures really are fascinating to look at up close. You will need to use a hand lens or a simple microscope to really see the amazing and colorful details. If you even remotely suspect that you have a guava fruit fly, please call the Pest Hotline at 1-800-491-1899, or bring it to your local Department of Agriculture office. If guava fruit flies were to take hold in the U.S., crop losses and pesticide use would both skyrocket. You should always protect your own garden by quarantining new plants, to ensure that they are pest and disease free. No, we are not discussing a breakfast cereal.
Frosted scale (Parthenolecanium pruinosum) is a soft scale pest of walnuts. If you have a walnut tree (and why wouldn’t you), scale insect pests can be a major problem. These sap-sucking pests also feed on stone fruits, such as apricot and peach, along with apples, pears, raspberries, grapes, pistachio, roses, laurel, birch, locust, sycamore and elm, spreading disease as they go. Frosted scale description Like other scale insects, adult female frosted scale are 1/4 inch, dark brown ovals, with a protective, dome-shaped covering. As the name suggests, frosted scale has a waxy, frost-like coating over its shell. This frosty coating stays in place for a while, but it eventually wears off, leaving behind a brown shell that can remain in place for a year or so. Frosted scale lifecycle Nymphs overwinter on twigs. In early spring, these nymphs quickly grow to adult size. By late spring, females lay many eggs, filling the space between their body and their protective shell. After the eggs are laid, the female dies. When the eggs hatch, the nymphs, or crawlers, come out from hiding and begin feeding on the underside of leaves. They will continue feeding until fall, when they molt and move back onto twigs, where they spend the winter. There is one generation each year. Problems associated with scale feeding Frosted scale insects feed on the sugary plant juices found in leaves and new twigs. As they feed, these nymphs produce large amounts of honeydew (sugary bug poop), which attracts disease carrying ants, and promotes the growth of sooty mold. Small numbers of frosted scale insects are not a problem. Heavy infestations, however, can suck the vitality from your trees, reducing crop size and quality. Also, as scale insects feed, they create wounds. These wounds make it easier for infections to take hold. One such fungi, Botryosphaeria, can lead to lower limb dieback and other potentially fatal fungal diseases. Controlling frosted scale In the world of commercial agriculture, insecticides are recommended if 5 or more nymphs are found per foot of the previous year’s wood. This means grabbing a hand lens and looking very, very closely. In the home garden, beneficial hunters, such as parasitic wasps, will provide the best protection. You can tell that a frosted scale nymph has been parasitized because it will turn black. Parasitized adults will have perforated shells. You can increase the populations of these tiny, beneficial wasps by avoiding the use of broad spectrum insecticides and pesticides. Dormant oils can be used in winter and early spring to rid your tree of scale insects, but walnut trees are sensitive to horticultural oils and you need to use narrow-range oils to avoid harming the tree. Scale infestations can sneak up on you. Be sure to take the time every month or so to inspect your trees for signs of infestation. What pests are lurking in the soil of your lawn or garden? One easy way to find out is to conduct a drench test. A drench test is simply pouring soapy water over an area and waiting to see what comes up. Most insects don’t handle soapy water very well, so they will come up, out of the relative safety of the underground world, when their home turf is saturated with the stuff. Underground pests The most common soil dwelling creatures that you will see are ants, earwigs, sowbugs, worms, and grubs. Most often, these grubs are pests. Common underground pests include armyworms, cutworms, fiery skipper larvae, sod webworms, and southern chinch bugs. How to conduct a drench test
Soapy water probably isn’t very good for beneficial soil microbes, so this isn’t something you want to do all over, but it is an excellent test for measuring the presence of soil pests. Follow these steps to see what might be nibbling your plants’ roots:
Once you have an accurate idea of what sort of pests are present, you can make informed decisions about controlling those pests. [There's no sense treating for a pest you don't have, right?] Let us know the results of your drench test in the Comments! You may have played with (or been horrified by) potato bugs as a child. The Colorado potato beetle is not that bug. [Those bugs are Jerusalem crickets, which are neither crickets nor from Jerusalem, but we will discuss those pests another day.] The Colorado potato beetle looks more like a striped cucumber beetle. Unfortunately, the infamous Colorado potato beetle eats more than just potatoes. To make matters worse, this pest has an impressive ability to become resistant to even the harshest chemicals. History of the Colorado potato beetle The Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) is also known as the ten-lined potato beetle, ten-striped spearman, or simply the Colorado beetle. First identified in 1824, this pest is native to southwest North America. Initially, this dome-shaped beetle preferred wild members of the nightshade family, but, by 1840, the domesticated potato became its favorite food, followed closely by tomatoes, peppers, and eggplants. Exports of potatoes (and the Colorado potato beetle) to France and Germany inspired the world’s first plant quarantine laws. During the Cold War, the CIA was accused of releasing Colorado potato beetles in Russia, in an effort to threaten the Soviet Union’s food supply. In 2014, to call a pro-Russian separatist of the Ukraine a ‘koloradi’, a nickname given to the invasive Colorado potato beetle, was an insult directed at their similar orange and black stripes. In Hungary, a statue commemorates the arrival of this difficult to control pest. Colorado potato beetle description This stubby, round beetle has the same size and shape as a Japanese beetle. It is usually 1/ to 1/2 an inch long and tends to be bright yellow or orange, with five stripes on either side of its wing covers (elytra) and scattered holes (elytral punctures) on its shoulder covers (thorax). Colorado potato beetles are easily confused with their close cousins, false potato beetles. False potato beetles, L. juncta, have stripes, too, but their stripes tend to be white, with light brown center stripes, and their elytral punctures are spaced in an orderly fashion. Colorado potato beetle lifecycle Adult females can lay over 500 eggs in one month. These bright yellow or orange, torpedo-shaped eggs are laid in clusters on the underside of leaves. These beetles go through four stages, or instars, on their way to adulthood. Each instar only lasts 2 or 3 days. Eggs hatch after 4 to 15 days, depending on temperature. These larvae have humped backs, are dark reddish brown, with two rows of spots on either side (if you look very closely). They can usually be found near abandoned egg cases. By the time these baby beetles reach their third instar, they are bright red with black heads. These pests will continue feeding and growing until they reach adult size. Then, during the fourth instar, they enter a nonfeeding, prepupal stage. These larvae are a lighter color and they don’t move around very much.
Migration isn’t something people usually associate with gardening. But they should. When we talk about migration, we generally mean large groups of animals moving from one region to another, due to seasonal changes, depleted food supplies, safety, and/or reproduction. Obviously, plants do not migrate in the proper sense of the word. [Wouldn’t it be a sight, if they could?] To most people, migrations are left to caribou and wildebeests, whales and salmon, swallows and robins, and monarch butterflies. And therein lies our clue: insects migrate. And those insect migrations can have a huge impact on your garden. Insect navigation Insects travel within a low, slow boundary layer, or significantly higher up, using fast-moving air currents. We are rarely aware of these massive migrations. Insects can sense polarized lights, and changes in wind speed and direction, helping them find their way. Insects also have built-in clocks that help them stay on schedule. The magnetic field theory related to bird and mammal migration appears to only impact short distance fliers. Which insects migrate? Several butterfly and moth, beetle, dragonfly, and African locust species migrate. [North American locust swarms do not occur seasonally, disqualifying them as migrations.] Even tiny aphids and lesion nematodes migrate, though their trips are significantly shorter. In some cases, insect migrations work much like bat, bird, animal, and fish migrations: adults get a genetically-initiated urge to travel to a better wintering or breeding area. After spending a predetermined amount of time in the new location, the urge to return strikes, and off they go. In other cases, one generation will take the outgoing flight, and the next generation handles the return trip. In many cases of insect migration, it takes multiple generations to make the complete trip. Mind-blowing numbers Between 33 million and a billion Monarch butterflies migrate each year, from Canada to Mexico and back again. Technically, since it takes four generations to complete the trip, these one-way excursions are called emigration, but we’ll ignore that detail. Monarch butterflies don’t harm our gardens, but other migrating insects can and will. And there are a lot of them. According to the journal Science, over 3 trillion insects migrate over south-central England each year. England’s cold, damp weather makes it fair to assume that those numbers are profoundly higher in warmer areas. The distances some of these insects travel is truly amazing. British painted ladies, or cosmopolitans, travel 9,000 miles over 6 generations. Wandering gliders, a type of dragonfly, travel 11,200 miles, with individuals flying 3,730 miles. For an insect that is only 1-3/4” long, it would be the same thing as a 6’ person traveling over 153,000 miles - under their own power. A few insects that migrate
Our gardens are impacted by several different migrating insects. A few of these pests (and their favored foods) include:
You can join the citizen science movement related to insect migrations by reporting your sightings to The Big Bug Hunt. Your information will be added to countless other sightings to generate ever more reliable prediction models. This can help you protect your plants better, faster, and with less effort, using row covers. Brown marmorated stink bugs have invaded the world! Okay, so maybe that was a bit melodramatic, but the fact remains: brown marmorated stink bugs have exponentially increased their range and they can be serious garden pests. The problem with stink bugs Most stink bug species eat popular fruit and vegetable crops, such as apples, peas, peppers, as corn, raspberries, grapes, tomatoes, pecans, pears, peaches, nectarines, lima beans and other bean plants, blueberries, hazelnuts, and cucumbers. When they feed, stink bugs inject your garden plants with enzymes that break down plant tissue into juices they can suck up. This makes the fruit under the skin tough, and pretty unappealing to us. It also sets the stage for several bacterial, viral, and fungal diseases. Stink bugs also feed on buds, flowers, leaves, stems, and new bark. Since stink bug populations can grow very quickly, they can cause significant damage. [They also like to overwinter in your home.] To make matters worse, insecticides do not generally work to control stink bug populations. So, what makes the brown marmorated stink bug an even bigger problem than other stink bugs? The traveling brown marmorated stink bug Brown marmorated stink bugs are originally from Eastern Asia. They are believed to have first appeared in the U.S., in Pennsylvania, some time between 1996 and 2001. These pests reached the West Coast in 2004, and are now found in over 40 states. While native stink bug populations tend to be controlled naturally by beneficial predators, such as parasitic wasps, this invasive pest has few natural enemies and, as stated earlier, it tends to be unfazed by chemical insecticides. This is why it is so important to be able to tell the difference between native stink bugs and brown marmorated stink bugs. Brown marmorated stink bug identification Adult brown marmorated stink bugs are 5/8 inch long and a mottled brown. Like other stink bugs, they have the telltale shield-shaped body. Some characteristics unique to these particular stink bugs include two white bands on the antennae, a blunt face, faint white bands on the legs, and a banded edge around the abdomen. If you are looking really closely (and why wouldn’t you?), you will also see that the thorax (shoulder area) is smooth, and there are dark bands on the tip of the membranous forewings. The folks at UC Davis made an informative video about the differences between brown marmorated stink bugs and more common, native consperse stink bugs. Brown marmorated stink bug eggs are white to pale green, and barrel shaped. Eggs are normally laid in clusters on the underside of leaves, though I have also seen them laid in lines on bird netting. After hatching, nymphs go through fives developmental stages, or instars, in which they shed their skin, much the way a snake does, as it grows. Nymphs start out only 2.4 mm (less than 1/10 inch), and grow to reach 12 mm (just under 1/2 inch). Early nymphs are brown, with an orange abdomen. Second instars are nearly black, while later instars develop the characteristic mottled brown color. Initially, markings are red, then black, and finally white. Brown marmorated stink bug lifecycle
Each autumn, these pests gather along fences, tree trunks, and buildings. From there, they move to a protected area where they overwinter in a resting stage called facultative diapause. In the spring, these adults become active again and start feeding. Within two weeks, they mate. Soon after, females begin laying the 200 to 500 eggs she will deposit in her lifetime. In the mid-Atlantic states, there are two generations each year. Here, in California, we do not yet know the extent of the brown marmorated stink bug’s reproductive capabilities. It is safe to assume that there will be even more generations here, where winters tend to be mild. Managing brown marmorated stink bugs Since insecticides don’t work, and there are few natural predators, what is a gardener to do about brown marmorated stink bugs? First, start by excluding them from your home and other buildings. Caulk openings, seal cracks, and use weatherstripping around air conditioners, doors, and windows. [This can reduce your electric bill, as well!] Next, since stink bugs are attracted to light, turn off unnecessary lights at night. [Another bonus for your utility bill.] In the case of heavy infestations, you can always use a shop vac or a handheld car vacuum to collect the little beasties. The most effective stink bug control is simply handpicking. You can drop stink bugs in a container of water with a couple of drops of dish soap, or feed the pests to your chickens. Assassin bugs, green lacewing larvae, some parasitic wasps, and earwigs are also known to feed on stink bugs, so avoid using broad spectrum insecticides. Row covers can also be used to protect specific plants and crops against stink bug damage. As temperatures begin to drop, many creatures search for winter shelter. That shelter may by your home, your gardening gloves, or, in some cases, a special sanctuary created by plants specifically for insects, spiders, and crustaceans. These tiny sanctuaries are called domatia. The word domatium comes to us from the Latin word domus, meaning home. It’s the same root used for words such as domestic and domicile. Domatia are chambers created by plants specifically for bugs. When similar chambers are created as a response to damage caused by insects, fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and other plants, those chambers are called galls. The difference between galls and domatia is a little fuzzy, as scientists learn more, but we will stick with the classic differentiation for our purposes. Domatium description There is a range of structures that can be called domatia. Most often, domatia often found inside thorns and on the underside of leaves. While these spaces are really tiny, so are the insects they house. And what could provide better shelter than under a leaf or inside a pokey thorn? These minuscule shelters may be nothing more than a small divot, surrounded by plant tissue or hairs, or they may be large, bulbous growths, filled with channels and chambers. Which insects live in domatia?
Some plants have evolved to create these tiny homes for certain insects, in a mutually beneficial relationship that may, or may not, benefit your garden. Ants and mites are the most common domatia residents. While these pests suck nutritious sap from our plants, carrying disease with them as they feed, they provide their hosts with nutritious poop and a certain measure of protection from potential invaders. Plants that house ants are called myrmecophytes [MER-meh-co-fights] and the homes they provide are called myrmecodomatia [MEER-ma-COD-o-ma-she-uh]. Sometimes, unwelcome guests move in. Thrips are one example. So, grab a hand lens or a magnifying glass and take a closer look at all the amazing things going on in your garden! Predaceous ground beetles are a large family of beneficial insects that live in the soil. You may see them scurrying across the ground, but mostly these members of Carabidae stay hidden in darkness. There are over 2,500 species of predaceous ground beetles in North America. They are mostly nocturnal and tend to hide under leaf litter and in the soil, though some species are attracted to lights at night. Predaceous ground beetle description Predaceous ground beetles are medium to large (1/3 to 2/3 inches long), shiny black or reddish beetles with long legs. Some species have brilliant coloration, and the shape can vary considerably. They have long, antenna with 11 segments and no knobs (clubs) at the end. The abdomen is large and rectangular, with a narrow thorax. While they can fly, they mostly prefer to run, which they do very quickly. Predaceous ground beetles look a lot like plant-eating darkling beetles. To tell them apart, you need to look closely enough to see if the second segment of the hind leg (trochanter), found between the coxa and femur, is enlarged. If it is, you have a predaceous ground beetle. Also, the antennae of predaceous ground beetles are attached just below a distinct ridge on the sides of the head. Predaceous ground beetle life cycle Eggs are laid in moist soil. When they hatch, larvae that look similar to earwigs emerge. These larvae feed voraciously on slugs and snails, and many bothersome soil dwelling insect larvae and pupa. These pest insects include masked chafers, caterpillars, grubs, tussock moth and gypsy moth larvae, other beetles, and maggots. While predaceous ground beetles will occasionally eat seeds and organic litter, they prefer meat to vegetables. In fact, adult Calosoma sycophanta (affectionately known as caterpillar killers) eat several hundred caterpillars in their 2 to 4 year lifespan, and their larvae eat up to 50 caterpillars before transforming into adults! While not exactly predaceous, Lebia grandis loves to feed on potato beetle eggs and larvae.
So, the next time you see a black beetle running across the patio, look for fat legs and eyebrow ridges before squashing it! Mexican fruit fly larvae travel the world in infested fruits. Cousin to the dreaded MedFly, melon flies, and spotted wing drosophila, just to name a few, Mexican fruit flies (Anastrepha ludens), or MexFlies, are a major agricultural pest. Quarantines are part of the ongoing battle against fruit flies, so it’s a good idea to check your state’s quarantine listing, or your local Department of Agriculture, periodically to see if your area is included.
History of Mexican fruit flies in the U.S. First found in the U.S., in Texas, in 1903, Mexican fruit flies were seen again in 1927. By 1954, they had spread to Florida, Arizona, and California. It is estimated that these pests have cost farmers $1.44 billion in damages. Mexican fruit flies are subject to eradication programs that include capturing, sterilizing, and releasing males that interrupt the breeding cycle. Mexican fruit flies have been expanding their range for several years now, and it’s not simply by catching a ride on an infested piece of fruit. Commercial agriculture brings crops to non-native regions, introducing them to local pests and diseases. For example, the mango, from India, only became a popular food of Mexican fruit flies after it started being grown in Central American and Mexico. Host plants Mexican fruit flies prefer grapefruit, oranges, tangerines, mango, apple, peaches, nectarines, avocado, and pear. More recently, they have been found on figs, bananas, prickly pear cactus, cashews, papaya, guava, pomegranate, peppers, tomatoes, squash, beans, quince, Japanese persimmon, passionfruit, pummelo, and arabica coffee. [Coffee?!!?} Not only is the Mexican fruit fly range expanding, but so is their diet. Mexican fruit fly description Slightly larger than a housefly, Mexican fruit flies are 1/3 to 1/2 of an inch long. They have a yellow or brown body and distinctive wing patterns. Also, adult females have extra long ovipositor sheathes (egg-laying tubes). The wing patterns include a costal spot (C), an inverted-V, and a sideways S shape. Larvae are slender white grubs with mouth hooks, and a slightly flattened back end. Mexican fruit fly lifecycle As far as fruit flies go, this particular species is relatively long-lived. Individuals can survive for 11 to 16 months. Females lay over 1500 eggs in their lifetime. Eggs are laid in groups of 10, on the skin of a fruit, preferably one that is slightly damaged. This provides an easy point of entry for Mexican fruit fly larvae, along with many other pests and diseases. In a week or so, after being deposited, the eggs hatch out larvae that burrow into the fruit and start feeding. As they feed, the larvae take on the color of the fruit their are eating, so you may not notice right way, after taking a bite of an infected fruit. Larval feeding continues for 3 or 4 weeks, depending on temperatures. Then, larvae drop to the ground, where they pupate in the soil. During this seeming pause in development, the slug-like larva is converted into a winged adult that begins breeding immediately after emerging, starting the whole process over. Controlling Mexican fruit flies Because they spend most of their lives inside fruit, insecticides are not effective against Mexican fruit flies in the larval, egg, or pupal stages. There is a tiny, repeated window of opportunity for treatment of adults, but only if direct contact is made with the insecticide. Generally, adults will simply fly away from treated trees and return a few days later, after it has worn off. Commercial growers use complex bait and trap methods that are unavailable to small scale growers. So, the only thing you can do if you suspect that Mexican fruit flies have found their way to your garden is to immediately contact your state's Pest Hotline, or your local Department of Agriculture. It is best to leave controlling these pests to the pros. There are no aboveground symptoms, but a carrot root fly infestation can ruin your carrot crop, along with several other umbellifers.
The best way to protect young plants from carrot root flies is to use row covers as soon as seeds are planted, and to leave the cover in place until it is time to harvest. Some people use window screen panels around raised beds to block this pest, while others use window screen material to create protective cones for individual plants.
There are resistant varieties of carrot, specifically ‘Flyaway’, which claim to thwart these pests, though I can’t vouch for its effectiveness, personally. Research has shown that intercropping alfalfa with carrots and other host plants, or mulching with alfalfa works to reduce carrot root fly infestations. Crop rotation can also be used to interrupt the carrot root fly lifecycle. Melon flies could end up costing California farmers over $4.5 billion if they ever get a toe-hold in the state. Melon flies (Bactrocera cucurbitae) are a type of fruit fly. Native to India and Asia, melon flies were first seen in Hawaii in the late 1800’s. They have now become a devastating pest on the Islands. Quarantine stations have worked long and hard to prevent this pest from entering the Continental U.S. The melon fly was first seen in California in 1956, and several other times since, but whenever melon flies are identified stateside, eradication programs immediately go into affect. These programs use pheromones to attract male melon flies. These males are then sterilized and released. This messes up melon fly breeding. So far, this method has been effective. So, why would a gardener care, if the pest isn’t even here? Because maybe it is. Melon fly host plants
It would probably be easier to list the plants that are not seen as food by melon flies, but it is important to know where to look, and to know what to watch for, so here’s the fruit fly menu of favorites from your garden:
Melon fly description The size of a house fly, melon flies are mostly orange or yellow and brown with a pale black T-shape on the abdomen and distinct wing patterns. Wings are clear with a large brown spot at the tip and a brown stripe along the back edge and along the base. Melon fly antennae also have an especially long third segment. Melon fly larvae (maggots) are creamy white, without legs, somewhat flattened at the back end. Maggots are less than 1/2 an inch long. Pupae are somewhat smaller than the maggots, held in a protective case that can be dull white or red, or brownish yellow. Eggs are very tiny, white, and somewhat elliptical. Melon fly lifecycle A single female melon fly can lay 1,000 eggs. Eggs are laid on young fruit and tender new stems, which will provide food for newly hatched maggots. Eggs that have been laid under the skin of fruits, or in host plant stems, flowers, and exposed roots, will hatch and the feeding damage begins. There are three larval stages, or instars. After feeding continuously, mature maggots drop to the ground, where they burrow into the top inch of soil and enter a pupal stage. There can be 8 to 10 generations a year. Melon fly damage During the heat of the day, adult melon flies rest on the shady undersides of leaves. When temperatures are more comfortable, they feed on nectar, decaying fruit, sap, and bird poop. [Keep in mind, as these pests fly from one food source to another, they can be carrying pathogens from the bird poop to your fruit crop.] Tunneling and feeding create points of entry that allow bacterial, fungal, and viral diseases to enter. Generally, the fruit ends up rotten and inedible. Melon fly control Unfortunately, there are not any effective controls available to the home gardener. You can certainly rake up the soil under and around potential host plants, to spot, remove, and report any pupal cases you find, and be sure to quarantine new plants. Currently available insecticides have not been found to work against melon flies. If you think you see a melon fly, please make every effort to capture or kill it. Then call the CA Pest Hotline at 1-800-491-1899, or your local Department of Agriculture, to report it. Only by working together can we protect commercial agriculture and our own gardens from the melon fruit fly. And don’t smuggle fresh fruit or produce across state lines. There’s a lot more at stake than you might think. Did you know that there are good grubs and bad grubs? Before we get started on grubs, let’s clarify the difference between grubs and caterpillars. Grub or caterpillar? Grubs and caterpillars are both the larval form of certain insects. They both feed like crazy before transforming into their adult versions. They both have longish, squishy bodies. So, what’s the difference? The difference is in family lines. Caterpillars are the offspring of butterflies and moths, while grubs are baby beetles. There are other differences, as well. Caterpillars have thick, meaty legs, and several of them, while grubs have stubby, ineffective legs (if they have any at all). Also, caterpillars tend to be brightly colored, whereas grubs tend to be white or tan. Grubs are generally one inch long, can feature a dark head, and may or may not have bristles, and they tend to rest curled up in a C-shape. Bad grubs Bad grubs, such as masked chafers, cutworms, Japanese beetles, armyworms, June beetles, and some weevils, can create brown patches in your lawn and wilting of fruit and vegetable crops. They do this by feeding on roots. Not so bad grubs While adult dried fruit beetles can cause problems, feeding on your figs, peaches, and plums, their larvae actually feed on organic material in the soil, helping in the decomposition process, making more nutrients available to your plants. A while back, I discovered a huge grub population in a raised bed that I use for potatoes. I dug them up (below) and fed them to my chickens. Then I learned that they were green fruit beetle larvae and that they had been making better use of the aged compost I had added to the bed. Ah, well. Live and learn. The chickens were happy. Grub control
Since most grubs are root feeders, getting rid of them can help your edibles, ornamentals, and your lawn stay healthy. Hand picking is the most effective method. This means breaking up the soil and picking them up. Breaking up the soil also makes it easier for birds to get their share of those high protein snacks. As much as we would all love easy fixes, products such as diatomaceous earth and white milky spore are not your best choices against grubs. Diatomaceous earth, while it can kill grubs, will also kill off beneficial insects. White milky spore, frequently advertised as a great grub killer, is generally only effective against Japanese beetle larvae. Beneficial nematodes can be used against grubs, but the timing must be exactly right for them to do their job. Soil temperatures must be above 60°F, making it the method of choice in summer and early fall, but completely ineffective in spring. How do you know if you have a grub problem? Brown patches and wilting can be caused by several factors. The easiest way to see if you have a grub problem is to conduct a drench test. To do this, fill a large watering can or bucket with 2 gallons of water and gently stir in 1/4 to 1/2 cup liquid dish detergent. Then, mark off an area, 3 feet square, with some string. Pour the soapy water evenly over this area. Within 10 minutes, you will see whatever insects are living in that particular piece of soil. If you have a problem, it will be obvious. With a name like tarantula hawk, you might expect to see some B-movie horror monster soaring out of the sky with eight legs, but the tarantula hawk is actually a spider wasp that hunts tarantulas. It also has one of the most painful stings of any insect in North America. Tarantula hawk stings Tarantula stings are ranked right up their with honey bee stings. Painful, but not debilitating. Tarantula hawk stings, however, are ranked as the second most painful in the world, with the African bullet ant being first. Tarantula hawk stings only last for 3 to 5 minutes, but all you can do during that time is scream bloody murder. Luckily, tarantula hawks do not sting unless provoked. [Apparently, we would be more reasonable to fear the tarantula hawk, than those big, furry spiders.] Unless you are allergic, tarantula hawk stings are not dangerous, just extremely painful.
Tarantula hawk lifecycle Adult tarantula hawk females hunt tarantulas as food for her offspring. If tarantulas are in short supply, they will also use grasshoppers and other large insects. She captures and stings her prey, injecting them with a paralyzing venom. Then, she brings it to a nest where she lays a single egg on the victim’s body. If this egg was fertilized, it will hatch as a female; if it was not fertilized, it will hatch as a male. Whatever the gender, when the egg hatches, the larva enters the prey and begins feeding. Interestingly, the larva know to leave vital organs of the still living edible for last, to keep everything fresh and delicious. In a few weeks, the larva pupates and emerges from its childhood meal as an adult, and the cycle begins again. Tarantula hawk diet
Adult tarantula hawks are nectarivorous, which means they feed on nectar and ripe fruit. They feed primarily on the flowers of milkweed plants, and mesquite and western soapberry trees. In some cases, that fruit has become fermented and tarantula hawks can find flying difficult. Imagine, if you will, a drunk tarantula hawk riding a terrified tarantula, buckaroo style. There may be a movie in there after all… Did you know that tarantulas migrate each fall? Now you know. Vedalia beetles are a breed of Australian ladybug that devours their weight in cottony cushion scale pests found on citrus, olives, roses, magnolia, and acacia. The vedalia beetle claim to fame is that it was California’s first attempt at biological pest control Back in the late 1800s, cottony cushion scale was decimating California’s citrus trees. In 1888, vedalia beetles (Rodolia cardinalis) were imported from Australia to counteract that pest, and it saved the California citrus industry
Vedalia beetle description Like other lady beetles, vedalia beetles are easy to recognize because of their domed body shape and stubby antennae. The difference being coloration. While bright red lady bugs feature dark spots, vedalia beetles feature a much darker red dome with splotchy black markings. Adults are approximately 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch long and covered with fine hairs that can make them look more grayish than red and black. Larvae are elongate, grayish, and can look like tiny alligators. Vedalia beetle diet While the bright red variety most of us think of as ladybugs feeds heavily on aphids, vedalia beetles prefer cottony cushion scale insects. Adult vedalia beetles simply chew up their prey, while younger larvae pierce their victims and suck out their juices. Vedalia lifecycle Vedalia beetles start out as tiny red eggs. These eggs hatch out into tiny red larva. Vedalia larva start feeding right away and they go through several instars, or developmental stages, as they grow. They continue to feed until just before pupating. Then they attach themselves to a leaf as they prepare for their final transformation. [Unlike other insects that pupate, if you touch a healthy vedalia pupa, it should move.] One week later, an adult vedalia beetle emerges, ready to lay 100 to 200 eggs in its 1 to 3 month lifespan. Combined with a parasitic wasp (Cryptochaetum iceryae), cottony cushion scale is now well under control in California, without the use of any chemicals. Since vedalia beetles are extremely sensitive to pesticides, it is a good idea to inspect an area for these beneficial insects before spraying chemicals. |
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